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DESCRIPTORS

National Project on Education for Management: Volune
I.

Pennsylvania Univ.^ Philadelphia. School of Social
Work.

Community Services Administration (DtiEii) , Washington^

D,C.

G-47-E900a0/3-01

1U4p.; For a related docament, see EA0C8428
Elisabeth Schaur), Project Director, National
Wanageaent Project, University of Pennsylvania School
of Social Work, 3701 locust Walk, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania 19174 (free)

MF-$0.83 Plus Postage. HC Not Available from EDSS.
♦Administrator Education; Curriculum Guides; Field
Experience Programs; *Guidelines; Higher Education;
♦Interdisciplinary Approach; National Surveys;
♦Program Development; Public Administration
Education; Social Services; *Social Welfare

ABSTRACT

This publication is one of tvo related volumes that
were produced as part of an interdisciplinary effort at the
University of Pennsylvania by the School of Social Hork and the
Wharton School to develop a joint educational program in social
welfare management. This particular volume contains guidelines for a
field experience program in social welfare management and a proposed
syllabus for a course in program evaluation for social services. Also
included is a summary of problems and issues involved in developing
an interdisciplinary program in social welfare management as
identified by participants in a 1975 National Seminar on Education
for Management in Social Services. Three main papers presented at
that seminar and a summary of participants' recommendations are
presented as well. Concluding the volume are reports of two surveys
that investigated recent educational offerings in the area of social
welfare management. (Author/JG)

********************** 3^**** ♦♦♦^^^^^♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦^

♦ Documents acquired by ERIC include many informal unpublished ♦

♦ materials net available from other sources. EBIC makes every effort *

♦ to obtain the best copy available. Nevertheless, items of marginal ♦

♦ reproducibility are often encountered and this affects the quality ♦

♦ of the microfiche and hardcopy reproductions EPIC makes available ♦

♦ via the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDHS). EDES is not ♦
^ responsible fcr the quality of the original document. Reproductions ♦

♦ si?pplied fcy EDRS are the best that can be made from the original. ♦

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us OEPARTMENTOF HEALTH,
EDUCATION* WELFARE
NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATION

THIS OOCUWENT HAS BEEN REPRO
OUCEO EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM
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ATlNGlT POINTS OF V.EWOR OPINIONS
STATED DO NOT NECESSARILY REPRE
SENT OFFtCfAL NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF
EDUCATION POSITION OR POLIC

National Project on
Education for Management

PEfiVilSSiON TO REPRODUCE T HIS
COPYRIGHTED /V^ATERiAl BY MtCkO
FICHE rwLV MAS REPN WANTED BY

TO ERiC AND ORGANIZATIONS QPERATi^^^
.» G uNDER AORfEVfcNTj A.TH THE NA
TlONAL INST.TUTE OF EDUCATION
FURTHER RFPrODUCTtON OUTSlOE
^HE ERiC SYSTEV requires PER/VMS
StON ^f- THE COPYRIGHT Otft/NfeR

Volume I

Guidelines for Field Experience in Education for
Management of Social Welfare.

Syllabus for Course in Program Evaluation.

Some Major Issues in Education for Management of
Social Welfare.

Two Surveys of the Current Educational Offerings
for Management of Social Welfare.

Note:

tHis material may not be
reproduced or used without
proper attribution to the
School of Social Work

Prepared by the Faculty,
Staff and Consultants of
the Project at the School
of Social Work, University
of Pennsylvania

ERIC

Spring, 1975

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This two-volume report Is a product of the National Project
on Education for Manaptenent of Social V/elfare. The Project 'las
Jointly conducted durlnr; 197^-1975 by the School of Social Work
and the Wharton School at the University of Pennsylv.^'ila.

The unlaue characteristic of the faculty menbors and the
staff attached to the Project is that they had real conviction
that the respective knov7ledp;e, InslPthts, and skills of social ''ork
and of business Tnanan:ement could enrich the educational prorrans
offered to social v;elfare manarers and that these offerlnp:s can
auCTient social v;elfare nanapierlal competency In a variety of v/ays.
We ovre to this p;roup of professional colleagues both respect and
admiration.

We offer a special word of thanks to Dean Harold Lewis and to
Mrs. Irehe Pernsley who contributed substantually to our Initial
thlnklnp; about Interprofessional education for social v;elfare
management throur;h the papers that they wrote for our Januarv
1975 Seminar for educators from Schools of Business and Schools
of Social Vfory Involved In education for manapiement .

We ov;e our thanks as "^ell to the participants In the January
Seminar v;ho contrltated many of the Ideas found nereln.

To our entire Advisory Committee we are appreciative for the
valuable recommendations and evaluatory feedback concernlno: the
objectives, priorities, and activities of the project which they
have provided .

The work of the Project v/as made possible by funds from the
Social and Pehabill tation Services, Com.nunity Services /Administration
of the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (Project Grant
Number ^7-P900^0/3-01) . "his rrant also provided the funds for the
development and dissemination of this report.

Particular thanks are due to Dr. P. Pauline Godwin, Special
Assistant to the Commissioner, Community Services Administration
who served as our laison with the Federal Arency durinr 197^-
1975 and v;ho was always availaole with valued counsel.

Elisabeth Scnauh, D.S.W.
Project Coordinator

INTRODUCTION

This tv70-volume report v;as df»velored as a result of an
Interprofer^slonal venture Initiated and bemn by tbe School
cf Social v;ork and the V'harton School of the University of
Pennsylvania durlnn: July, 197^ to June, 1975. The ?.oal of our
collaboration has been to develop and further Joint prop;rams of
education for manap:eTnent of social welfare.

The Wharton School, v/lth our assistance, has developed a
volume of svllabl and course outlines. These courses cover the
hlp;h priority selections proposed by the project for manap:ement
education In social vrelfare. They can be Jointly offered by
schools of social v/ork and business manap;ement at universities.
The material In the syllabi can also be adapted for use In a
variety of contlnulnr education rrorrans for social v/elfare
man.ac^ement . Our material Is avallaole here to schools of social
work and business for utilization by educators as v/ell as by
social v;elfare orr^anlzatlons Interested In the development of
educational programs for the manao!;ement of social welfare.

We have selected tv;o additional areas of Importance for
consideration by educators Interested In Joint educational
proc^rams and p-uldellnes for then have been developed. One
set of guidelines Is for develorlnn* courses In procrram
evaluation In social welfare. The other Is for utilisation
by educators who wish to develop field experiences and/or
practlcum? for Joint der^r-ee programs of manaP^ement education.

In Januarv of 1?'75 we conducted a seminar In education for
management for social welfare held at the Unlvessltv of Pennsylvania.
The participants v;ere drawn, from amonr; the educators currently
conduct Inr 0^26 projects and from other educators v;lth demonstrated
competency and Interest In develop in- Interprofessional pror^rams
In social v;elfare and bulsners administration. This frroup of
educators provided the project faculty and staff with a variety
of Innovative and helrful recorrmendatlons about the initial work
of the project. The seminar participants were asked to meet araln
in June 1975 to assist us by evaluatlnr the syllabi and fruldellnes
developed by the project and bv naklnp- recommendations about
optlnlzln?^ their avallaolllty and their utilization by other
educators. Thev made other valuable sufTrestlons about rurtherln^r
programs of manap:ement education at the ^Tasters and Post~:^astesr
level .

In order to learn nore about the Interest amonr social
welfare administrators In contlnulnr education In management ^s
well as about the state of the art of manarenent education, we
have conducted several surveys, with both administrators and
with educr^tors. Our reports analyse some of the continuing
educational ri^o^ram? in social welfare management now under the
auspices of coileres and universities throu^-hout the country.
We have also secured Information about the preferences re^ardlnr.

continuing education In manap;ement of a national sample of
administrators In social welfare proR;rams, as well as from a
sample In the state of Pennsylvania.

We have received excellent recommendations from the
representative of come of the standard setting associations In
the field of social welfare and from a number of social welfare
administrators v/ho have made surp:estlons about the kind of con-
tinuing education that In their view, competency in social welfare
administration now requires.

The guidelines for field experience In social work education
for management and the proposed syllabus for a course In propiram
evaluation begin the first volume of the report. Also In It
are the vlev;s expressed by some of the participants In the
National Seminar on Education for ManaPtement In Social Services
held ir. January 1975 at the University of Pennsylvania In
Philadelphia. Included are three main papers presented at the
seminar as well as recommendations of the participants regarding
developing; rrorrams of manap^ement education for social services.
Endlnp; the first volume, are tv;o reports on some recent ed-
ucational offerlnpTS for social service management as v;ell as on
administrators' preferences about their ov/n further education In
management science and skills.

The second volume contains the syllabi and outlines of
courses In nanarement to be conducted Jointly by schools of social
work and business manaprement. This material v;as prepared by the
faculty of the Wharton School under the direction of the VJharton
Entreprenurlal Center at the University of Pennsylvania.

In a certain sense, the work bep:un at the University of
Pennsylvania by the School of Social Work and the Wharton School
Is unfinished. Hopefully, the readers of this report will carry
It further and continue '.;lth stimulating^ and asslstlnr the de-
velopment and establishment of educational rrorrams In management
of social welfare. In our view, Interprofestilonal educational
programs for management for social v/elfare should continue to
be Infused v;lth management theories, principles and technclorlcal
Information from the f lei ^ of Duslness administration. The ad-
ditional v;ork needed to develop Joint prorrams Is substantial, for
these prorrams must be developed so as to offer an education In
managerial skills appropriate for the value system and the con-
ditions and environment of the social welfare system.

Elisabeth Schaub, D.S.W.
Project Coordinator
School of Social Work
June, 1975

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Guidelines ^^cr Fj.eld
Experience in iJ^cial vrork
Education for rianagement
in Sec: al Vie?* fare
By - Sue Henry, D.S.W.

Proposed Syllabus for a
Two Semester Course in
Program Evaluation for
the Social Services
By - Richard J. Estes, D.3.W,

Some Major Issues Facing
Educators Developing Inter-
professional Educational
Prograrns for Management of
Social V7elfare
As Stated By -
Participants in Project's
January, 1975 Seminar for
the Educators

Recommendations on Major
Curriculum Content for
Joint Educational Programs
on Management of Social
Welfare
Made By -

Participants in Project's
January, 1975 Seminar for
the Educators

Management in the Non-
profit Social Service
Organi::ation

By - Harold Lewis, D.S.W.

Professional - Bureaucratic
Conflict in Social Agencies -
A Further Consideration
By- Herman Levin, D.S.W.

Section
In

Blue

Covers

Gold
Covers

Green
Covers

ERLC

TABLE OF CQNTENTS

Section

7. Experiencing Social Work In
Administration in the Green
Seventies CDvers
By - Irene F. Pernsiey, M,S,W.

8. Report on a National In
Survey of 63 Graduate Bi.ff
Schools of Social V7ork Covers
Offering Continuing

Fducation Programs in
Social Welfare
Administration and
Management

By - Elisabeth Schaub, D.S.W.
and

Sandra B. Cohen, M.S.W.

9. Repor on a Survey of 38
Short Term Educational
Programs on Administration
and Management in the
Social Services Funded
1974-1975 Under Title IV
Section 426 of the Socicil
Security Acy

By - Mrs. Marlene Patterson,
Doctoral Student

ERIC

GUIDELINES FOR FIELD EXPERIENCE
IN SOCIAL WOPK EDUCATION FOR
MANAGiSMENT IN SOCIAL WELFARE
Objectives, Domain, and Criteria

Sue Henry, D,S,W.*
Assistant Professor
School of Social Work
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania

*This material may be reproduced and utilized
with proper citation •

The material contained ^n the following pages addresses
the field experience in social work education for management and
administration. The educational objectives and components which
set the domain of management and administrative learning are
elaborated. Presented as well are the criteria for selection of
field placement agencies, for selection of field assignments^
and statements of obligation which should exist between school
and placement setting with respect to provision of learning
opportunities. The material which specifies the selection of
f'»eld assignments is organized around a set of concepts reflect**
ing recent trends in administrative practice toward greater em-
phasis on the managerial aspects of administration.

This material is presented as illustrative and suggefited
rather than as prescriptive and exhaustive. A user will be able
to follow the scheme presented and develop practice assignments
according to the variety of learning opportunities embedded
within the organization utilized for field placement. Coherence
and articulation of this content with the content of the total
report is ?.chieved by utilization of concepts and course content
developed by faculty members of the Wharton School as found in
Volume II of the report of the National Education for Manageitient
Project.

Objective of field exper ience in social work education for
management and admini stration of social welf are services

Through a program of planned learning opportunities,
assignments are to be provided in ""ield practice whereby students
in social work may experience, integrate, and apply, under the
instruction of an employed social work professional, the knowing
valuing r and doing componenbs of administra^ \on .

I. SETTING THE DOMAIN

In designing leaminq opportunities in administrative
practice, the followxng elements should be considered:

Acknowledgement is mad^- of the contribution to the development of
this material in the following sources: "i^of lections on the
Preparation of Social Workers for Executive Positions," Monica
Shapira, Journal of Education fo-* Social Work (Winter 1971), 55-68
"Developing Field Instruction Foci and Tasks," Roger Lind, 1971;
"Core Curriculum, Administrative Sequence," The University of
Michigan School of Social Work (February 197S), Preliminary Draft;
"Developing Specialized Programs in Social Work Administration in
the Master's Degree Program: Field Practice Component,** Bernard
Neugeboren, Journal ot Education for Social Work (Fall 1971), 35-
47. The development of these materials is made possible by funds
from the Social and Rehabilitation :3ervices, Comir.unity Services
Administration, of the Department of Health, Education, and
Welfare (Project Grant Number 4'7-P90040/3-01) .

-2-

For the purposes of these guidelines, administrative
practice is defined as those behaviors concerned with planning,
mobilizing and directing, and evaluating the services and
resources of social agencies directly and on behalf of the agency
elsewhere in the community. These behaviors apply equally to
efforts which change the nature and effectiveness of social
service delivery as to efforts whlc.h maintain and enhance social
welfare service delivery. i»

Learning, in this regard, proceeds from the assumption
that there are administrative aspects inherent in all social
service positions. Here, however, the cotif^ern is with practice
wHi<4h is other than as a line worker; the concern is with task
requirements at the level oT unit/dspartment/service head or the
executive level. Such management positions as training officer,
pi^ogram evaluator, field representative, contract reviewer,
administrative aide to executives are typical of those which are
considered here as are middle level administrators, sub-executives
and executive level positions, and supervisors of direct service
workers.

The domain of field experience Ln administration is bounded
by value, knowledge, and behavioral parameters. A suggested but
not exhaustive description of tl'OS'? elemeiits follows.

Value assumptions u nderg i ra i n£ ^< imiji i s t r a t ivo practice

-Administration is essen*:iali, oidorly proc^rs, depending for
its effective perfornance cn goal definition, planned coordination
of its parts, clarity in J tn policies, r^pc oiii.?ity in the roles of
all who are a part of the orquii i zatxonai ^-^^rtem, and equity in
its discharge of ra^c!:.ions,

-An organization (sociai acycncy^ is composed of individuals who en-
act the behaviors of -ystem-specif 3 c roles. It is also more than
the sum of its interacting purt^3 in the ..ense that the charter,
auspice, policies, an^] roles ex^st without regard to the persons
who occupy the roles and statur.es of the organisation.

-An assumption that competerv:e ve^^ider in rhe persons occupying
positions in the organizational structure undergirds i^tilization
of human resources.

-To the extent that a socj^j agency is an open system, it is in

a state of change and is am^nr.' lo ^o *^lanned, intentional influence.

-Organizational stability occur,^ by meanr; of the orderly and
progressive achievement of - ccomodation between maintenance of and
modification of the organi zn tion.

-Skills in analysis and skills in interpersonal relations are
both required for managerial effectiveness of soci^ii w elfare

ERIC 1.0

organization albeit differentially possessed by managers aiid
differentially utilized according to organizational level
occupied by managers and demands of management task.

-Participation on the part of those likely to be affected by deci-
sions is desirable even while leadership is retained in the
executive position.

-The administrative style of the person occupying the executive
position will influence the degree of innovation which is Intro*
duced or permitted throughout the organization.

-It is the task and responsibility of the administrator of social
welfare administrators to find a way of preserving the values of
the profession in a bureaucracy. To stand at the center of sever-
al conflicting forces and to retain central identity with a
professional stance beco<nes the role of the social welfare
manager-admin istrator .

-Ethical guides to conduct found in the NASW Code of Ethics and
the value system of the social work profession apply equally to
social workers who administer as to social workei i in other levels
and modes of practice.

-Accountability for professional practice is to clients, funding
source f profession, society via community auspice, and governing
(policy making) body just as sanction is derived from clients and
society in an array of institutional arrangements.

Knowledge bases undergirding a d Ttinistrative practice

In the material below- fields of administrative practice
knowledge are presented as general concepts and discrete informa-
tional areas or technologies are arrayed as specific content to
be learned. Sequence and progression of learning may then be
designed in a fashion which maximizes student learning patterns
and styles of course organization. The general and specific con-
tent areas portrayed on the following pages represent recent think-
ing in administrative practice and are those identified by an
interdisciplinary group of faculty members from schools of business
administration and schools of social work who served as consultants
to the National Management Education Project.

Learning situations Pdv be begpn at any point of the
material which follows and then related to any other part of the
content as learning needs, teaching opportuniti.3S, and practice
assignments dictate.

ERIC

-4-

General

Specific

EXTERNAL, ENVIRONMENTAL
RELATIONS

PROGRAM DE7EL0PMFOT

PROGRAM IMPLEMENTATION

Organization ot social welfare uervices
Political processes
Legislative processes
Interagency cooperation
Policy analysis

Understanding, assessment and evaluation
of the organizational environment

Consumer participation/citizen
participation

Planning methods (PERT, PPBS, etc J
Operations research
Organizational analysis
Decision theory

Administrative structures, roles, func-
tions

Administrative leadership
Administrative strategies and tactics
Values and ethics of social service

administration

PROGRAM EVALUATION

SYSTEM CHANGE

FISCAL MANAGEMENT

PERSONNEL MANAGEMENT

Operations research
Cost benefit analysis
Systems analysis
Quantitative methods
Quality control methods

Organizational analysis

Goal formulation

System restructuring

Management of organizational conflict

Organization development

Budgets and budgeting
Fiscal control

Funding sources and allocation procedures

Gremtsmanship

Cost analysis

AccoUiitability

Job analysis
Collective bargaining
Professionals in organizations
Supervision, stalf development tech-
nologies
Grievance procedures
Conflict managejnent
Contract administration
MBO

ERIC

I^JFORMATION SYSTEMS T^'pcs of information systemsr capa-

bilities f ' cos L
Output utilization

Issues of confidentiality; preserva-
tion of human values and quality service
values in management information systems

Computer technology

The above general and specific knowledge areas are suggested
and illustrative rather than inclusive. Some repetition inevitably
occurs and even more will be seen to occur in the following section
on behav-crs wherein the same technology or behavior may serve
several uses. The use of a given bechnoloqy or behavior will depend
on the sequence or phase of management/administrative practice
occurring at the tine that the choice is made to utilize a given
skill. For example, PPBS and MBO may be utilized as planning toolsr
implementing tools ^ and evaluation tools. The teaching (and use)
of any of these technical resources will reflect a spiral or matrix
approach to learning rather than a linear approach.

Behavioral aspects of administr ative practice

The format to be utili.^ed in this section will add behavioral
dimensions to the delineation of genera] and specific knowledge
areas in the pieceding section. Again, the presentation is illus--
trative and not inclusive:

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A scheme or model such as the one presented in the preceding
sections may be utilized for identification of the behaviors which
are to be learned by students of social work in the managerial
aspects of administration. The model serves as a device for
screening behaviors and knowledge areas to highlight and specify
those agency tasks which may appropriately serve as the ground for
learning^ The section which follows is a logical extension of
that model.

II. PRINCIPLES GOVERNING FIELD EXPERIENCES

Field practice assignments may be selected and developed by
means of a match or "fit" between the student's expressed learning
needs and goals, the field instructor's assessment of the learning
needs, and the learning opportunities inherent in the practice
assignments which are composed of agency tasks designated for
student learning. The scheme presented in the following pages
portrays the fact that learning opportunities may be identified as
appropriate to student learning in a fashion that extends the
General-Specif ic--3ehaviors format another dimension.

Students selected for fneld placement assignment within
administrative experience should be screened carefully and every
attempt made, insofar as pos.Fib]e, to select those who possess
the following characteristics:

-analytic skills with some demonstrat-od capacit^' to exercise
judgment and discro t ionary powf^r aopropria tely

-interpersonal skil^?. including intervi ev;ing

-some capacity to ritarnLain Gne=;elf in the- face of ambiguity and
uncertainty

-ability to express ori^^self clearly and concisely in oral and
written communication

-skill in and demonstrated capacity i n di scussi on leading

-a basic identity as a social worker

Criteria for pla coTren t

Criteria which exist for Mie selection of field agencies for
student placement should flow f i om a sot of educational principles
These are detailed below. Following that, the expectations which
both schooJ and agency may legitimately hold for each other are
spelled out. Aqroements betwoeti schooT and agency should be on a
written, contractual basis; this procedure will enhance the evalu
ation process for adequacy of aacncy and assignments available
and will, at the same time, provide its own unique learning exper-
ience .

-10-

Educational principles:

1. There should be congruence and articulation between field
practice assignments and classroom content in order to facilitate
transfer and applicability of learning.

2. Field practice assignments should be selected with regard for
the inherent learning opportunities

3. Criteria and expectations for amount of time spent in the
field; availability of field instructor; availability of office
space^ phone supplies^ etc; appropriateness of assignments;
practice with a range ot client units and modalities ^ etc. a which
apply for any student should apply for students of administrative
practice.

4. Assignments selected for the learning opportunities afforded
should be those which are actual agency tasks ^ encompassable in the
time availablef^ and capable of being sustained to completion.

5. Students who are given administrative assignments should be
those with substantial prior employed experience in a social
welfare service. It is essential that their prior experience
include direct sfirvice functions ar.o. desirable that their assign-
ments have included some indirect service functions as well.

6. Assignments given should take into account the size and com-
plexity of the agency and position occupied by the student in prior
employment in order to capitalire on readiness to learn.

7. Top-level agency executi 'es shoald provide the field instruc-
tionr even though students' assignments may involve them with
others in the structure, in order that students* roles and activities
carry thr legitimation oT authority necessary for effective func-
tioning.

8. Field instruction lodged vith top-level executive personnel
means that a wider range of assignments v»ill be available in
contrast to the narrower remge available elsewhere in the structure.

9. A method needs to oe provided for ongoing analysis, monitoring
and feedback in order to mnko changes in assignment or field instruc-
tion early and in an informed fashI.on,

Expectations between school and agency;

School

Will provide the classroom content which supports the applica-
tion expected of the student in the field or will guide the student
to other resources needed to help the student carry assignments;

Will provide liaison between school and agency in the person
of a designated faculty member;

er|c 1G

-11-

will provide consultation^ ongoing orientation^ periodic
meetings r and communication regarding school based expectations
for learning;

Will provide continuing education for field instructors
covering the content to which students are exposed in order to
facilitate articulation between school and field;

Will provide analysis and evaluation of student learning
assignments in terms of the consequences for student learning.

Agency

Will make selective^ educationally-determined assignment of
tasks for student learning;

Will communicate in detail t.. Learning opportunities
available in the agency which afford learning for administrative
practice;

Will agree to invest the appropriate amoiint of authority
and responsibility in the student for carrying out administrative
duties;

Will agree to provide the f^xpected pattern and structure of
agency-based field instruction;

Will select and assign top-level executives as field instruc-
tors even though the student:' s work rr.ay be done elsewhere in the
structure and with consultation v^ith another stalf member;

Will provide assignments which are actual agency tasks ^ ful-
filling actual agency responsibilities as well as facilitating
student learning,

III. GUIDELINES FOP SHLECTING FIELD PRACTICE ASSIG^^riE^?^^^

The following section elaborates, illustrates and suggests
a scheme for designing and selecting student field practice assign-
ments according to the learning opportunities inherent in given
tasks. The scheme requires that the field instructor or person
within the agency responsible for student assignments shall have
screened and reviewed the possible tasks with regard for the specific
learnings — opportunities to practice specified behavior — imbedded
in those tasks which wil3 facilitate and advance student learning.
Sequence and progression^ scope and balance may then be designed
according to student need, readiness, and task availability.

The practice assignments which arc suggested flow logically
from the conceptual frame utilized throughout this section and are
suggested^ only. Variations on these suggestions and others not
mentioned here will naturally suggest themselves according to spe-
cific agencies and the learning opportunities which can be found ther^

-12-

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Und, Roger. "Developing Field Instruction Foci and Tasks."

Florida State University, Tallahasee, Florida. 1971.
(Typewritten)

University of Michigan School of Social Work, "core Curriculum

^^^^^''^ Sequence," Preliminary Draft, February
1975. (Mimeographed)

Neugeboren, Bernard. "Developing Specialized Programs in Social
Work Administration in the Master's Degree Program: Field
^Pan'JgTl???"!;':" Journal of Educa tion for locii/w^.w

Shapir a, Monica. "Reflections on ths Preparation of Social Workers

^'(Sin^ri^????1g!e;/°-^"-^ °^ ^-^'^

ERIC

PROPOSED SYLLABUS FOR A IVJO SEMESTE3^ COURSE IN
PROGRAM EVALUATION FOR TOE SOCIAL SER7ICES

Prepared by

Richard J. Estos/ D.S.W.
Assistant Professor
School of Social Work
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19174

Preparation of this syllabus was made possible by a Grant to
the National Project on Education for Mianagement for 1974-75 frm
the Social and Rehabilitation Services, CcroTunity Services Adminis-
tration from the Department of Health, Education, and Vfelfare
(Project Grant #47-P90C40/3-01) . The School of Social Vtork and the
Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania collaborated on
this project.

PIOGRM4 BVTttiJKriON IN 1HE SOCIAL WORK CURRICULUM

Introduction

Ibe dawnd for acoountability within the human services has never
beer, ^^ater than it is at the present time. T!he general public's
insisitence on a nore efficiently qperated social welfare system, ho^
ever, vxnes at a tiine v*ien the profession seens least prepared to
proviue the programnatic answers whicn both it and the genered pxiDlic
seek* The effectiveness of traditional nethods of rendering social
services has corns under sharp criticism and nost administrators now
recognize that the grossly inidequate resources which have been used
to operate social welfsure activities have done little to alter the
fundamental social prbblere brought by clients to the system* MDre
inportantly, administrators are also beginning to recognize that a
oontinuaticn of the present administrative structure of welfare may even
be serving to reinforce some of the nore elusive systemic deficiencies
for which personal and iiistitutional change is required.

Tlie cxorrent crisis of professional acoountability is oorpounded by
the reality that fewer than one percent of all social workers are engag-
ed in researc±i or program evaluation activities (Maas, 1966: 186). The
situation is further hammered by the fact that sonevAiat less than
one tenth of one percent of the total social welfare dollar is
allocated to the gathering of organizational intelligence for purposes
of more effective program planning and social service delivery (Tripodi,
1974:7) • Formal program evaluation is almost non-existent throughout
the social service system and few administrators base critical decisions
on cxther than iitpressionistic, even subjective, data of questionable

ERIC

value to all oorvcemed.
Program Evalviation as a tlanagement Tool

The iitplenentation of a oanprahansiver on-goinar and relLible
systan of program evaluation can greatly assist program managers in
arriving at critical choices between conpeting programnatic alterna-
tives. When xised effectively^ program evaluation serves to inform
managers of the relative merits and limitations irf-ierent in particular
decisicais by providing them with relevant quantitative or other systeith-
atically gathered data. Such data can be used to: (a) irprove current
or existing agency programs; or^ (b) support the adoption of new
or modified service approaches which have been demonstrated to be more
effective in meeting client needs.

The schema presented in Chart I illustrates the use of program
evaluation data in selecting between two programniatic alternatives.
The model takes into account the relative cost and effectiveness of
each alternative and^ in so doing ^ informs the manager about the rela-
tive fiscal and service advantages associated with the selection of
each alternative. Such a decisional model is net available to the admin-
istrator without high quality program evaluation inputs howeyner. The
adoption of thisnethoaology and its related technology on tloe other
hand, will place sudi tools at the disposal of the social welfare admin-
istrator.

Program Evaluation in Schools of Social Work

The following materials sunwarize a curricular design for the in-
clusion of program evaluation content in the curricula of schools of
O . social work. They have been prepared on the assurption ti:at the danand

for professional accountability will oontinve far into the future. The
author assumes that the profession will respond to these pressures
throu^ the preparation of increased nurtbers of social work practitioners
who are oonpetent to conduct high qu2dity research into the adequacy
of various levels of professional practice. The author also assumes
that the training of oonpetent social program evaluators vill be under^
taken at the graduate and post-graduate level of social work education,
and that, increasingly, specialized prograre of continuing education
will be available to existing agency personnel to assist them in the
acquisition of program evaluation skills. Further, the author assumes
that social work educators recognize that research/program ex'aluaticn
skills are both technical and highly process-based in nature and that
training, therefore, requires an extended period of learning tiine. In
general, program evaluation skills cannot be acquired through time
lixnited woiicshops , institutes and other short-term training models
v^ich do not allow sxaf ficient opportunity for students to identify and
resolve the highly conplex agency-specific problems v*uch arise in the
actual process of conducting program evaliaaticn research (Estes, 1975).

The curricular materials are organized into, four sections, three
of which COTitain detailed course outlines directly relevant for special-
ized education in social program evciluation.

A. Purpose and Values of the Social Vfork Profession

B. Introduction to Social Research (1 Credit Unit)

C. Principles of Social Program Evaluation (1 Credit Unit)

D. Autonated E>ata Processing and Management Infontation Systeirs
(1 Credit Unit) .

Oontent areas A, B, and C are sequential in nature, but content
area D may occur oonoirrent with learning in areas B and C. A method for

Er|c 2d

related field practicuun is also suggested and a generous bibliography
on program evaluation in the human services is proviclod for the reader
at the end of the chapter.

As with other sections of this report, these materials were pre-
pared in conjunction with a national project seeking to identify concepts
emd practices of business administration vtoch may be of value to admin-
istrators in the human service arena. This project was undertaken
jointly by the Schools of Social \^rk and Business Administration of
the University of Pennsylvania in Philadel^ua. The results of that
collaboration are reported in the two volumes currently in the possession
of the reader.

The content described in this section of the report was not develop-
ed in collaboration with faculty from the business school. The thought-
ful reader, hcwever, may wish to study the chapters entitled "Information
Systems" and "Quantitative Methods" vAiich appear in Volume II of the
report. These chapters should serve as valuable supplements to the
existing chapter inasmuch as they focus in more detail on selected
aspects of the suggested content areas proposed by this writer. In
many respects, hcwever, social program evaluation is a practice unique
to the hxjman service arena and the reader, therefore, should be selective
in adopting other evaluative approaches which fail to take s:ifficient
cognizance of the special social purposes assigned by society to the
not-for-profit human service institution or agency (e.g. exclusive
concern for fiscal accountability or efficiency without regard to human
valuss or other relevant service oonoems).

ERIC

Edixational capjectives

The proposed three-part program of tra-oiing for program evaluation has
five closely inter^related learning objectives;

(1) to prepare graduate level social work students and practicing
professionals for advanced managerial roles in social agencies;

(2) to equip than with the mininal skills necessary to design and
carry out systematic inquiry into the adequacy of current social
agency functioning;

(3) to provide students with specialized knowledge in the principles
and techniques of social program evalviation mdertaken within the
context of high quality social research;

(4) to enable students to redesign current data management practices
so as to make them more responsive of the needs of the modem
social agency, its clients, and the broader network of social
welfare services; '

(5) finally, to help students develop skill h\ the use of social
program evaluation as a professional instrument for use in
furthering needed social agency and societal changes.

These objectives were used as guides by the author in preparing the
materials v*iich follow and should serve to assist social work educators in

adapting the material to thsir cwn particular educational needs. In
general, the continuing education administrator should feel free to sub-
stitute or elijninate those content areas or background skills which
their students alreacfy possess at the point of embarking \jpon training
in the research/evaluation area.

CurriculcT Structure

Essentially, the skillful social program evaluator requires specialized
knowledge in four discrete content areas: (a) the organizing social pur-
pose and values of the social weli.ure enterprise and the social wrk
profession; (b) basic research methodology; (c) principles and methods
of prograra evaluation; and, (d) autcnated data processing and informa-
tion retrieval systems. Each of these content areas will be discussed
belcw:

A. Purpose and Values of Social VJork and Socicil Vfclfare

Rasearch or program evaluation conducted within a f ram&>rOrk
which fails to taiie cognizance of the fundamental professional
values and organizing human purposes of the social welfare s\'stem vx)uld
be sterile indeed I Such persons are not likely to perceive the value
of overall interpersonal and institutional changes and, in a general
way at least, would not be able to uncover txie subtle program
goals and objectives associated with a process-based approach to
practice. In addition to a concern for task, productivity / effi-
ciency and effectiveness, the skillful social program evaluator
nust also possess an identification witii and concern for achievoirent
of fundamental organizing purposes of the social welfare system.

ERIC

32,

Failure to identify vdth these purposes, in the author's e:?)erienoe,
represents a serious deficiency on the part of the evaluator and
usually results in abortive evuJLuative efforts v^ch rarely beoorre
integrated into on-going agency practices or program inodifica-
tions.

This author believes that social program evaluation can best
be conducted by persons vrtiose oortpetencies include both the tech-
nique of program evalviatipn and the value base of the relevant
hunnan service professioa. For socieil vx)rker professionals, sud; a
perspective is best aquired through a gradviate program of social
work education vhich exposes the student to the realities of both
direct and indirect service delivery. This perspective is further
enriched by disciplined study of the history and philosofiiy of the
profession as well as the values inplicit in socieil policy develop-
ment and iitplementation, Hhe profession's traditional focus on the
growth and develcpraent of the individual within a social, psycholog-
ical, political, legeil, and economic milieu also serves to broaden
the evaluator' s knowledge base oi the systems v*uc±i he/she seeks
to stu^. Further, the professicn's comnnitment to significant social
diange through a disciplined purposeful process also constitutes an
iitportant knowledge area for the program evaluator.

Based on experience, the social program evaluator should
be a fully qualified practitioner within a recognized human ser-
vice profession. Hie possession of such credentials fosters
oamtunicaticn between the evaluator and those persons cind progrars
to be evaluated and, at the same time, insures that the eveiluator
shares an identification with the fundamental vaiues"^hd purposes
of the social welfare system. The possession of a oomnon

professional base also insures that the evaluator will be sensitive
to the ove2>-ridLng concerns of program staff and administrators
and that) like than, he/she v;ill seek to specify reoortiTendations and
solutions vAiich further the developnent of a more invigorated, al-
beit changed, social welfare system. Repeated ex5/?rience has
shown that program evaluators f xjnctioning within social agencies ,
at least \5X)n concluding their educations, shoxild possess at
least a miniimia pi assional degree in social work.

Assuming that the program evaluation student shares an identifi-
cation with the fundamental goals, objectives, and values of a
relevant hunan service profession, specialized training in this
research area can then be conducted v;ithin a context anchored to
the organizational needs of the social agency. This context-specific
training should enoonpass three areas: (a) basic research method-
ology; (b) principles of socicil program evaluation; and, (c)
autotated data processing and information retreival.

Before introducing the proposed curricular design for each of the three
technical content areas mder lying program evaluation skill, it is iirpor-
tant to note that these materials are intended to assist social work
educators with the developnent of relevant program evaluation content
In their curricula. Ihese materials are not erfiaustive in format but
should pro\'e sufficient for purposes of most schools and programs of
continuing education. The proposed model is adaptable for use at both
the masters and doctorcil level and, with sane additional specification,
can be tailored for use on a continuing education basis as well. Because
of the assumptions mderlying these materials, the proposed model will

ERiC

probably be of liiaited use to prograns of undergraduate social work educa-
tion except on a more general iasis.

OCURSE I; INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL RESEARCH

rhe syllabus for INTRDDUCTION TO SOCIAL RESEARQI has been organized
on the assuiiption that all graduate Sdiools of Social \*)rk and post-
graduate programs of oontinuing education have oorpetent research educators
either currently on their facilities or readily available to them. Con-
sequently ^ the mat erial is schanatic in its presentation and suggests only
those major research issues or concepts vAiich should be contained in an
introductory course on research methodology. The author leaves to the
individual faaJ.ty member the choice of technique or approach for intro-
ducing this basic content. Similarly ^ the author made no effort to key
the various concepts specified in the syllabus to relevant bibliographic
literature. Introductory research content is well established in the social
work currriculumr and^ no doubts each research teacher has his or her am
preferences with respect to illustrative literature. Some outstanding bib-
liographic references are provided for concepts not usucilly covered in ir*tro-
ductcry courses ^ hcwever^ and the instructor mrty well wish to begin with
thefie suggestive readings in the process of building a more conpre-
herisive course bibliography.

INTRDDUCTION TO SOCIAL RESEARCH has been designed to span a ccrplete
fiemester of fifteen weeks. The optimal nuirber of weeks to be spent on
each course module is designated in brackets irmediately to the right of
each major content area. The course can be staffed either by a single
faculty mentoer or^ if preferred^ through the resources of several in-
structors each of wham undertakes to ooTTplete one or more modules of the

course in their area of greatest oanpetencei e.g. i research design,
interviewing, data analysis, sanpling, etc.. Because of the inportanoe
of this introductory course, however , should the latter staffing pattern
be preferred, the author does urge tnat a single faculty menber be
assigned the on-^oing responsibility of helping students integrate the
teaching of the several instructors into a franework vMch, at onoe, is
more consistent, oorrprehensive and unified in its final iitpact. At the
beginning level, at least, a poorly integrated introductory course
will place students at a severe disadvantage as they nove into the more
methodologically ccrplex courses in Program Evaluation and Conputer Tech-
nology.

PROPOSED SYLLABUS FDR nTTRDDUCTlON TO SOCIAL RESEARCH (1 Credit Unit)

I. The Functions of Research in Social Vfork (1)

A. Purposes of Research

1. Description

2. E^lanatiqn

3. Prediction

4. Control

B. Social Research and Social Policy (Sherwood and Freeman, 1970)

!!• The Logic of Socia]. Research

A. Preliminary Stages of Research (3)

1. Identification of the Research Problem

2. Conceptualization

3. Theory Building

4. Hypothesis Derivation

5. Operationalization

ERIC

B. Tlie Design of Scx:ial Peseardi (2)

1. Field Research (Schatzman and Strauss, 1973)

2. Sxxrveys

3. Ebqperiments

4. Quasi-ES^^erimental Designs (Caitpbell and Stanley, 1966)

5. Iitpact Research and Program Evaluation (Weiss, 1972)

III Sanpling and Probability (1)

A. Randoimess and Probability

B. Types of Sanpling

1. Probabilily

2. Non-Prcbability

IV. [feasureiTent of Social Research (2)

A. Instrument Construction

B. Scaling and Scale Construction

1. Available scales (Chun, et al ., 1973).

2. OrigincO. Scales

C. Questionnaire Construction

De Quantitative MethDds (See R.C. Jones, Vol. II, of the present report,
pages 146-157).

V. Data Oollection (2)

A. Sources of Available Data

1. Libraries and Archives

2. Agency Case Records

3. Agency Administrative Records

B. Sources of Original Data

1. Observation and Judgments Civtebb, et a3, > , 1966).

2. Questionnaires

3. Interviewing

VI. Data Analysis (2)

A. Use of the GcDnputer and Autonated Data Processing Techniques
(Nie, et al. , 1970; 1975) . : ^

VII. The Politics of Agency-Based Research (1)

A. Hole of the Researcher (T\vain, 1972; DHEW, 1972a; 1972b;
1972c; Perry and \^jynn, 1959) .

VIII The Research Report (1)

OOURSE II; PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL PROGRa^M EVAUJ/JIOM
A. Prerequisites

Prerequisite to the course on PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL PROGP>?iM EVTJLUTJIO::
should be a successfully corrpleted course in basic research nvathodDlogy,
such as that just 'described. The present course assumes that the stu-
dent will have acquired at least beginning skills in the design and
conduct of general research and that only a minirnal anount of the
present course time will be spent in reviewing research principles
of an elenentary level. Cotparable experience in research practice
rosy serve as an acceptable substitute for a recent formal course in
research methodology in the case of an exceptional student or an
experienced research practitioner.
B. Length of Training

Because of the methodological oonplexities inherent in social
pzogram evaluation, the course has been designed to span a period of

at least one full semester (fifteen weeks). For schools or continuing
education centers which can si?>port «i more leisurely educational program
the course can easily be e>?>anded to cover t^x> full terms in order to
optimize the student's acquisition of essential practice skills.
Similarly / the content of the present syllabus can also be sharply
delimited for purposes of short-term institutes and time limited
training. Courses spanning a period of less than one semester # how-
ever, should TOt have as one of their immediate objectives the
student's acquisition of evaluative skill since learning at this
depth has been demonstrated to energe only over time in relation-
ship to carefully spaced pedagogical and experiential learning oppor-
tunities (Estes, 1975).
Course Content

1. Scope of Social Program Evaluation

Social program evaluation refers to the systematic gath-
ering of information relating to the functioning of human ser-
vice prograiTB that is useful in making significant progranmatic
decisions. Evaluation iiqplies placing a "value" on the struc-
turing and outcome of these programs and, liJce all research,
requires the systematic collection of data using established
scientific procedures and principles. For the social agency,
evaluative efforts are focused vpon identifying current agenci'
f motioning and, as needed, to assist administrators and
service workers in increasing the effectiveness of their
services.

When undertaken skillfully, social program evaluation
permits the maximum involvement of all relevant organizational
neitoers in the process of assessing program effectiveness. Pro-

gram eva^luation is not undertaken within an agency vaaim.
Unlike research in general, the results of program evaluation
are rarely prepared for dissemination on an extra-agency
basis.

Levels of Evaluation

Social program evaluation ray occur at vaurious levels
within the social agency depending ipon (a) the sophistica-
tion of the evaluator, (b) the inforjrational' capability of
the social agency and, (c) the focus of the evaluative
effort. At the present time, most agency evaluation efforts
tend to be rather limited in scope, focusing primarily upon the
gathering and reporting of routine client utilization informa-
tion of a statistical nature (e.g., frequency and type of
client contacts) . Fav social agencies have the resources of a
fully qualified program evaluator on theii' staff vjho can con-
duct a broader range of specialized systems management and
service effectiveness studies.

The cube reprinted in Chart II outlines a three dimensional
model of program evaluation activities vhich are relevant to the
information gathering needs of most sizable social agencies. The
ciibe can be used to assess thie level of current agency evadua-
tive activities and, as appropriate, to determine new areas for
evaluative expansion. The cibe also defines the essential roh
of the evaluator at the various levels of evaluation to be
undertaken.

Types of Evaluative Activities

Evaluation enconpasses four mftjor categories of research
effort:

- ' I

a- S\^stcn's >!anagerx3nt Intellinencx^ Gathering : focuses on
exanination of broad agency goals and objectives and the
suitability of the various processes used to achieve thm,
i.e., budgeting oaitrols, program expansion, data for
funding so\:u:ce use, cost-effectiveness analysis, etc..

fc* Client Utilization Reviews; defines the system as it inter-
acts v.lth clients, e.g. , type, pattern, freqeuncy of client
contact; needs assessment, etc..

c. Lnten^r.ticn Outocre Studies ; oonmonly referred to as
"effectiveross studies" this stage of evaluation seeks to

assess the r^act of services provided to clients using
the systerr^

d. Ercadar Sy3t£rs L-pact Studies ; invTolves the identification
of ser^/ice irnact on the broader cormjinity and broader
social v/elfare system; relies on use of social indicators
and ot^.er broad s-^/eeping rreasures of change.

4. The Prograr". r>/aluation Process

Qxartlll depicts a generic model of the process of social
program evaluation. The chart identifies the major task categor-
ies of this process as well as the irajor subtasks which must be
performed prior to moving on to the more advanced steps, i.e. ,
need ar.zr.zzrmt formulation of prxxjrezn goals and c^^jectives
•-^ sry-^jific^ticn of program rethods ~* data gatlioring — irpli-
rer.tA' ir^r planned program mcdifi cations.

Vtf: vcA^\ allo/s, indood requires, non-cvaluativo staff j^^-oi-licipa-
tiTc. trJ"^ />^r>;;♦: c-ich ntage of the proce'sn v/herein the cvaluator
sor'Ajs m an cxj'/:rt-aonr:alLant role v;iUi mcirlyjrs of the program

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staff. The evaluator assures responsibility for the validity of
the instmrrents used and the relevance of data gathered but^
of equal iitportance^ for the procx^ss of evaluation itself.

Curricular Design

T!tie follcv/iiig syllabus is reconrnerided for the structuring of a
one seitester coixrse in p,rogram evaluation. The course should be
tau^t by a single faculty ircrber who inay^ at his or her discretion,
utilize the experiences of practicing progran\ evalxiators to siapplerxmt
specific aspects of the course. Vlien available ^ central course
conepts are l^e^'ed with relevant references contained in the extensi\'e
bibliography which appears at the end of this chapter,

PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL EVT^LUATION (1 Credit L^t)

I. The Functions of Program rvaluation (2)

A. Central Purposes

1. Increased Infomaticnal Capability

2. Continuous Prograrxratic Assessment

3. Increased Rational Service Planning

4. Inpro^/ed Client Care

5. Identification of Drcrging Ser\ace Needs

6. Incroiiscd Ainin i stxative Efficiency'

B. Relationship of Ev^eduation to Progrcn Planning (Freonan
and Sherwood, 1970).

C. Program E\-aluaticn as Instrunont for Organizational Change
[Dmi 1972a; 1972b).

II, Dimensions of Program Ev^cduation (2)

±A A. Systcirs rtonitoring (Pnogi-am Audit) (Estcs, 1974; 1975).

B. Client Utilization Studies (Gutek, 1974; Tischler, 1973).
C* Intervention Effectiveness Studies (Pattison, et al. ,

1969; Kc±)in, 1974; Estes, 1973).
D. Conmunity Iirpact Studies (Redick, et al. , 1971; Rosen,

1970; Montague and Taylor, 1971).

III. Stages of Social Program Evaluation (6)

A. Program Description

B. Assessment of Service Needs (VJarheit, 1974)

C. Definition of Program Goeils nad Cbjectives

D. Documentation of Program /activities

E. Data Specification

F. Construction of Evaluative Instruments

G. Data Collection

H. Data Analysis

I. Reporting Findings
J. Program Ifcdification
K. Periodic Reassessments

IV. Role of the Evaluator (1)

A. Assisting in Identification of Elrerging Needs

B. Specification of Goals and Objecti\^

C. Construction of Intervertion Plan

D. Prepeuration of Evaluation Instrurrents

E. Sharing Evaluation Findings with Progranmatic Staff

V. Specia]. lopics in Social Prograra ^Valuation (3)

A. Staff Resistance to Program Evaluation (Nielson, 1975; Del
Beoq, 1971; Chester and Flanders, 1967).

B. Cost-Benefit Analysis (Sorensen and Phipps, 1972a; 1972b) •

C. Autonatic Management Information Systerns (Smith and Sorensen #
3974; LeBraton, 1969).

D. Evaluating Indirect Services

E. Limitations of Program Evaluation (Rossi, 1972; Walker ,
1972; Tripodi, 1974).

F. Client Rights and Confidentiality (Noble, 1971; Dm,^, 1972c;
Kelman, 1968).

VI. The Politics of Social Program Evaluarion; Survival of the E\^aliir>tor (1)

A. Federal Politics (Wildansky, 1966; Monsdale, 1972; Buchanan
and Vlx>ley, 1972).

B. Agency Politics (Rosenblatt, 1968; Perry, 1959; Glaser and
Tayler, 1973).

E. Field Practicuum

In addition to the didactic portion of the course, optimally, every
student will be provided an opportunity for developing program evalua-
tion skills within the context, of a recti agency. Unlike research of a
nore general nature, program eval'iation cannot be conducted in isolation
from other activities of the agency ncr apart from staff members \^ose
work activities are to be directly affected either by the evaliJative
process or the evaluation results. Indeed, the program evaluator requires
the cooperation of agency staff working at all levels of the agency through-
out most of the major stages of the evaluative process. Such a concurrent
practicuin sho^jld be provided within the oonte:± of the graduate student *s
current field agency placement v.iien foaj^iblc or, alternatively, in a
setting arranged by the course instructor when necessary. In the case of

enployed professionals a suitable practicuum can usually be arranged for
the student within his or her am current agency of errploynent. In general,
classroom role playing and siitdlar simulations serve as poor substitutes
for the student's cwn direct exposure to the evaluative process.

SupejTvision of the practicuum should be arranged with an experi-
enced researcher or evaluator, VJhen such a supervisor is not present
in the student's parent agency, a small preceptor group should be arrang-
ed by the course instructor for the purpose of individualizing the stud-
ent' s agency-based learning. Because of the conplex human and technolog-
ical problems of an agency-specific nature inherent in program evalua-
tion, course instructors should make every effort to arrange for this
type of formal practice e:^rienoe in every situation vdiere such a
practicuum is possible.

COURSE III : AUTOMATED DATA PKXESSPJG INTOK-IATION PJTTRIEVRL

The effective program evaluator will acquire skills in automatic data
processing. Essentially, this knowledge base requires that ihe student will
gain:

1. a functional understanding of the oppc'iiunities and limitations
of automatic data processing systems;

2. skills in oannunicating with a ccnputer so as to be able to pro-
gram it to undertake the desired data analysis;

3. a vorking understanding of the peripheral processing equipnent
associated with the ccnputer, i.e., the keypunch, card reader,
card sorter, duplicating machines, output terminals, input
terminals, computer storage systems, etc.;

4. skill in the use of a limited niirber of pre-packaged statistical
and analyticcd program (e.g. SPSS, Data-Text, Pickle, Osiris,

Cobol, etc.) .

Additionally^ the progrcmi evaluation student will need to learn
ocnputer-relatpd techniques v^iich assist administrators in developing
nore autoratic systems of data collection, data processing, and data
retrieval at the case level . The development of iTiach?j:e readable optical
scanning data forms such as that developed by the author for agency use
in Chart IV, for exarrple, can prove of great benefit to most agencies and
will elirrinate wasteful time currently used for manual data recording end
data processing. The adoption of such techniques will increase the
efficiency of clerical staff and, more ijtportantly, will make available
to administrators, an enormous body of management information v.+iich,
until such a systOT is adopted, .simply can not be adequately processed by
manual operations.

Similarly, the program evaluation stulent will need to acquire
skills in helping administrators develop more sophisticated managcrgnt
information systems (I US) Vuiich will allow them access to progranratic
arvS agency-v:ide data for use in more rational program planning and Lriple-
mentation. Such syst£ris can be developed on a limited budget by persons
who are trained to understand the joint requirements of oonputerized
data systems and the organizational intelligence needs of an agency.
Many fine working examples of inexpensive oonputerized manegenent infer-
nation systems can already be found in the social v/elfare literature
and several are cited in the appended bibliography (Estes, 1974).
A. Course Structure

Ihe course syllabus which follows was developed specifically fc/
use with gr actuate and post-graduate le\'el social vx)rk students, TI:^

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csonteiit of this course should be studied closely in conjunction with
that proposed by Dr. Chris Mader in Volurve II of this report (Schaub^
1975: 158-168) and^ \*ien taken together^ his curricular proposal
and my cwn should prove to be more than s\if ficient for adequately
developing beginning course content in the course area at the
reader's own center or institution.

Most larger universities possess the machine and manpower re-
sources required to offer a course in autorrated data processing and ,
as necessary r faculty may be initially drawn from sdiools or dcpcurt-
ments outside of the Sdiool of Social Work.

1. Course Length

In general r this course should be undertaken ccncurrent
with the student's course in either INI'ROEUCria>I TO SOCIAL
RESEARCH or PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL PROGRAM EVALUATION. Know-
ledge of conputerized data processing systems is discrete in
nature and does not require an extensive prior knwledge of
research methodology or program evaluation skills. Although the
basic content of the DJSTA PROCESSING course can be covered in
less than a full semester (six - eight weeks) , the instructor
will want to allow a full term (fifteen weeks) for this course
so that students can mdertake a super\dsed group practicuum
in the xise of conputerized data systems. Indeed, the prac-
ticuum is an essential part of the learning as it is here^
not in the classrocn^ that the student lecims hew to solve
many of the technical problems associated with the computer's
qperation.

2. Oost

Faculty will also want to allocate each stucJent an in-

inaividualized budget of approjdinately $100.00 for direct machine-
related e^qpenses. 'Sne corputer is an es^jensive tnadiine to
operate and the cost of the practioium vdll need to be reflected
in the stuSent's tuition or course fee.

Course Syllzibus: (1 Credit)

I The tfanagernent of Aandnistrative Infonnation (1)

II Approaches to Data Management (2)

A. Manual Systems

1. McBee Cards

2. Reoorcls and Progress Itotes

3. Periodic Service Tallies ,

B. ftutoinatic Systems

1. Ccnputer HarA^are

a. The "Coitputer"

b. Peripheral Processing Equipment (Keypunch,
' Opticad Scanning, etc.) •

2. Corputer Softward

a. Data Analytical Packages (E.g. SPSS, EftTMEXT, etc.)

III Interfacing with the Conpater (6)

A. Conversion of Manual to Autatvatic Systems

B. Laboratory/Practicuun, i.e., learning to caimunicate
with a corputer.

IV Issues in Automatic Data Processing (3)

A. Staff Resistances

B. Client Privacy

C. Oost

D. Utility

V Data Processing Techniques and Program Qwige; The Bole of the
Socicd Vtork Professicnal (1)

SELECTED BIBLIOGFAPHY BY On^TENT AFEA
ON SOCIAL PRDGRAM EVZ\LU?jTION

Prepared by

Richard J. Estes, D.S.W.-
University of Pennsylvania
SdKol of Social Wbrk-
Philadelphia / Pennsylvania 19174

June, 1975

Page

I IWITODICTOPY OVErVICT OF EVTaLUfiTIVE RESEARCH 1

A. Ffederal Evaluation Policy 2

II LEVELS OF EVALUATICN ACTIVnY

A. Needs Assessment and Planning 3

B. Outocre of Inter'/enticn , , . . - 4

C. Coirmunity Iiroact Studies , . , , 4

D. Cost Benefit Analysis ^ 5

E. liethodological and Statistical Issues 6

III AITTOMATED IT^CFl^n! IIgX)ra!ATICga SYSTEM'S 7

IV THE EVya.UATIXT: PROCESS ;jsD n^.^CTIgs^^I, R3LES OF TIIE EWaU/TOR . . . 8

V CLIHTT'S RIGiriS AND OKIFIDD^IALITY 9

ERLC 55,

I INTRDDUCIORY OVERVIEW OF EV7\LUATIVE RESEARCH

ftnerican Institutes for Research

19 70 Evaluative Research; Strategies and ^!ethod3 , Pittsburgh ,
Pennsylvania: AIR.

Caro, F.G. (ed,)

1971 Readings in Evaluative Research . Ne-; York: Russell Sage
Foundation.

Carter, N.

1973 Evaluating Social Dev^lcpnent Prograins . Ottawa: Canadian
Council on Social Developnent.

Chomuie, P. and Hudson, Inc.

1974 "Evaluation of Outoome and Process/' Social Work , 19:
682-687.

Eicker, W. , Brenner, D. , Burgess, J., and Jhangiani, A.

1967 The /plication of SvGtxrrr> Technolocry to Ccnrrunity ffental

Health! VJcdthan^, t^ss. : /applied Hurnin Service Systeins.

Harper, D. and Eabigian, H.

1971 "Evaluation Research: The Consequences of Program Evaluation,"
htental Hygiene . 55: 151-'156.

Departinent of Healtli, Education and v:clfcire

1955 Evaluation in tlental Health . Washington: NI>!H (PHS #413).

King, L. W. , et al .

1970 Problems in Review - Accountability, Like Qiarity, Begins
at Hone," Evaluation 2(1): 75-79.

Monsdalev V7.F.

1972 "Socicd Accounting, Evaluation, and the Future of the
Hanan Services," Evaluation 1(1) : 29-34.

Mullen, E. J. , Dunpson, J.R. et al.

1972 Evaluation of Sccial Intervention , San Francisco: Josscy-
Bass, Inc.

htontague, E.K. and Taylor, E.N.

1971 Preliiainary K-nndboo]: on Procedures for Evaluating rental
Health Indirect Servlco ProcTaTS in Scr.ccls . /dexcmdri a .
Va. : Human Pcsourcer: Peseorcn Organisaticn*

Paulson, C.

1970 A Stratoq\' for Pvaluation Design. Oregon State System

of Highor i:ducaticn (:*iroo).

Program Evaluation Project (PL?)

1973 Evaluation: A Fonjn for Hunan fGrvioe rv^cision-f Lakers
Minneapolis: Kcdical I^search Foundation, (Periodical).

RAjerts, L. M. etal.

196 8 " "OorrprehenLive Ifcntal Health: The Challenge of Evaluation ,
Ma£san: University of VCiscx?n3in Press.

Itossi, R.H. and vailiams, V7. (eds.)

1972 Evaluatin(^ Social Prograirs; Theory, Practicx^ and Politics ,

New York: Senujiar Press.

Schulberg, H. C, Sheldon, A. and Balder, F. (eds.)

1959 Prpgrr-m Evalu a tion in the Health Fields, New York:

Behavioral Publications.

Schwab, J.J. , VJarheit, G.J. and ^^jiell, E.B.

1974 CoKittunity tlontal Health Evaluation and Tissessment of

Needs and Services , Gainesvillei University of Florida.

wuci:*"'an, E.A.

1967 Evaluati^;e Research: Principles and PractioGS in PuIjIic

Service and Social Action Frocr ars. New YorK: Russell
Sage Foundation.

Tripodi, T. , Fellin, P., and Epstein, I.

1971 Social Proqrr^r:i Evaluntdon Guidelines for Health, Education
and Vfelfare ?rtministrators . Itasca, Illinois: fTe. Peacock,

TV/ain, David, et al .

1972 Research and Hurran Services: A Guide ^o Collaboration for
Program Developrrent , V Jashington : GPO .

Vfalker, R.A.

1972 '*The Ninth Panacea: Program Evaluation," Evaluation ,

1(1): 45-53.

Vfeiss C.H.

19723* Evaluation Research-Jfethods of Assessing Program effectiveness
Englew^xxi Cliffs, N. J. : Prentioe-Hall , Inc.

1972b Evaluating Action Programs: Readings in Social Action and
Education . Boston: Allyn ana Baoon.

lifeiss,^C^H. "Between the Cup and the Lip..." Evaluation , 1(2) : 49-55.
A. Federal D.^luation Policy

Buchanan, G.N., Wholey, J.S. „ ^ , ^. ^n^ n oo

1972 "Federal Level Evaluation," Evaluation , 1(1): 17-22.

Chafetz, M.E. ., ,

1974 "^tonitoring and Evaluation at NIAAA,' Evaluation , ^(1) :

49-52.

ERiC 55

Freeman, H. and Sherwood, C.

1970 Social Fcscarcn ond Social Policy , Engl©>?ood Cliffs, N.J. :

Prentice-IIcJl, Inc.

Glaser, D.

1973 Routiniz inq E X^aluaticn; Getting FeccT^ick on Effectiveness
of Crxpy^ and ]::,>linc;ucncy Progrc^ps , V?ashington: GiX).

Wholey, J.S. , Scanlcn, J.W. , Duffy, II.G. and Vogt, L.M.

1970 Feder al >: valur.ticn Poli c\^: /ana lyzing the Effects of Public
Progrcu:^^, Washington, D.C. : The Urban Iristitute"^

II. LEVELS OF EVALUATION i^TTIVITy

A. Needs Assessrr>nt and Planning

Del ^ecq, A. and VandciVen, A.

1971 "A gro\-p procoss rode], for problem identification and
program planning," Journal of Appli ed Behavioral Science,
7 (4) : 466-490.

Guttentag, M. and Snapj.*cr, K.

1974 "Plans, Evaluations, and Decisions," Evaluation 2(1):

Hargraves, VJilliam, et al.

1974 Resource ri^torials for Ccirnunity Mental Health Program

Evaluation (5 vo.Iut^gs) San rrancisoo: National Institute
of toital HecJth.

1974a Volume I Elements of PrograiD Evaluation
1974b Volume^ II r.ccid AHSCGS-g^cnt ara rj^cL-Janc ]
1974c Volume- III ! •ork\c,r-;;x:uit Infc r/> ?tic!:! Systa^s for lllC

1974d Voluire IV Ev-c^Iuating trio Erfcct3.vcness of So rvia?
1974e Volume V A VforKUig People's Guice to the ProgrS? Evaluation

Incentive .

Departnent of Ifealth, EdiK:ation and Vfelfare

1972a Planning for Creati\^ Ch^s i ce in Ilental Health Send ees; Use
of PrQjraM ^Valuation , l.ashii-igton, D.C,: GPO, (HSIl :f 71-9057) .

Departnent of Health, Education, and Velfare

1972b Pl£irir:ng for Creative Chrnc.c in :'^?^jitcil I^^ ealth Sendees: A

Distillaticr. of Principles on FcGearc li Utilization, Kasl.inoton:
GPO (liSM ;i 71-9059).

Rosen, B.

1974 "A ^bc:el for Ilsti rating ri^ntal HerJth Needs Using 1970
Cdnsu3 Socio-T-corordc D?ta," r'r.LhodolocTv r^rort s.
Washington, D.C. : GPO, (ADi'I tf74-G3) .

Warheit, G. et al.

O 1974 Planning for G^^ - ^ngo; Kced^ Asse5<Tont App roaches. Gaines-
£ R I C ville : Univcrju ty of Florida.

Intervention Outcome

Ellsworth, R.B,

Consumer feedback in masuring the effectiveness of
rental healtli prograi^. IN: Ilancbook of LValuativc
Research, Ed. by M, Gutcntag and E.L, Strucning, ns,
in preparation.

Estes, R,J,

1973 f-feasuring Fducational Achicvcncnt , Berkeley: California
Departrnent of i:3ntal Hygiene, (Publication # 73-01).

Estes, R,J.

1975 "learning style preferences of comrunity mental health

prof essicnals , " ConT^unity ^:cnt^a Health Journal ,
(Winter) .

Gutek, D. et al.

1974 "Utilization and Evaluation of Gcvemriicnt Services by
the A^Tcrican People," Evaluation 2(1) : 41-48 •

Hargreavcs, W. et al .

1974d Evaluating the EffectivcnesG of Service , Washington:
NIMII. ~~

Klarman, H.E.

1972 /^plicat:on of Cost-Benefit Analysis to Kealtli Systems

Tecihnology. In: Technology and Health Care Gyztr -r. in
the 1980's , Ed. by K.F. Collen (Publication f PiS:: 7>l0l6)
V^ashmgton, D.C. : U.S. Govemncnt Printing Office •

Otis, T.

1972 "^feasuring Quality of Life' in Urban Areas," Evaluation
1(1): 35-38.

Pattison, E.

1969 "Evaluation of Alcoholism Treatment: A Cbnparisoi of Three

Facilities," Ardiives of General Psychiatry , 20:478-408.

Robin, G.D.

1974 "The In-School IJeighborhood Youth Corps Program,"

Eva] uation 2 (1) : 53-57.

Waskav, I. (od. )

in press Pgyc±othGrapy Change iloaGur es: Report of Clinica l Rccc^ch
Branch, UUV. Outccr.c Vcc^c^uroi Projects U'ashingtxjn , D.C:
U.S. Govemnent Ir riritmg Cifice.

C. Corm unjt^y Ir^vict Studies

Redick, R.W. , Goldsnuth, H.F., and Unger, n.L.

1971 1970 Ccn- 'js Data rnocrto T rcUcate Areas v;iLh n i ffcr^-^nt

Potentials for f ii^rital F:c»^lt:^ rrx\ P^^latod F].cLic:.r., IV nt. of
Health, Education ard V.elfcure, ^ I£M 72-90Ll, {.ash. : GPO.

Roberts, A.O.H. and Larsen, J.K,

1971 Effective Use of Mental Health Rgsearch Information
Palo Alto: Prcerican Institutes for Pesearcdi.

Wila>x, L.D. , Brcx^Ics, R.M. , Beal, G.M. , and Klonglan, G.E.

1972 Social Indicators and Societal ttonitoring; Pn Annotated
Bibliography. San Francisco : Jossey-Bass .

D. Oost-Benef it Analysis

Bonney, N.L. , and Streicher, L.H.

1970 "Time-Oost Data on Agency Administration; Efficiency

Controls in Family and Children's Services," Social
Work (OctODer) ; 23-31.

Joint Econatd':: Connittee, Congress of the Iftiited States.

1973 Benefit-Cort /Analyses cf Federal I^^rocrairs: A Corpencliufci

of Papers. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govamrent Printing
Office.

Levine, A.S.

1966 "Cost-Benefit Analysis in Social VJelfare; Aji Exploration
of Possible Applications." v:elfore in Pevia^ , 4:1-11.

1967 "Evaluating Program Effectiveness and Efficiency: Pationale
and Description of Research in Progress." Vfelfare in Pevicv /
5: Wl.

Sorensen, J.E. and Phipps, D.W.

1972a Cost Pmding and Rate Setting for CorniiTnity riental Health
Centers: IV^th^pdological P^eport , VJashington: GPO, (DIILW,
# 72-9138; KSI4 # 73-9069).

Sorensen, J.E. and Phipps, D.W.

1972b "Cost Finding," Adrlnistration in Ttental Health , VJinter:
68-73.

Turvey, R. and Prest, A.R.

1965 "Cost-Benefit Analysis: A Survey," Eooncraic Journal , 75:
683-735.

Wildavsky, A.

1966 "The Political Economy of Efficiency: Cost-Benefit Analysis,
Systems Analysis, and Program Budgeting." Ptjolic AdTviinistra-
tion Review. 26: 292-310.

ERJC

E. MjthodDloqicalaid Statistical Issues

Bass, R. andV7indle, C.

1972 "Continuity of Care: An /^roach to Measurement,"

American Journal of Psychiatry 129 (2) : 110-115.

Bass, R.

1972 A Method for fteasuring Continviity of Care in A Conraratv
Mental Health CeiV;,er, V.-ashington : Departrvmt of Health,
Education, and v:elf are (HSiM # 72-9109) •

Caitipbell, D.T. and Stanley, J.C.

1966 gysrirental and Oaasi-E::perijnental Designs for P^seardi.
Qiicago: Rajnd I-IcT^ally and Corpany. *

Caporaso, J. A. and Roos, L.L. , JR.

1973 Quasi-Experimental Approach; Theory and Evaluating Polio/ .
Evanston, Illinois: Northv.estem University Press.

Chun, K.T., Cobb, S. , and French, J.R.P.

1973 Measures for Psychol o gical Assessrrent; A Guide To 3000

Original Sources c:incn]:cir ' /^pl ications, Anr. rc±>ort
Institute tor Social ^search.

Davis, K.R.

1973 "Four Ways to Goal Attainment: An Overview," Evaluation
(1) : 43-48.

Fairweather, G.W.

1967 Kiethods for Experopiental Social Innovation , New York:
Wiley and Sons.

Kilpatrick, S.J.

1973 Statistical Principles in Health Care Information .

Baltiitiore : Uniwr^ity Park Press.

Kiresuk, T.J. and Sherman, R.E.

1968 "Goal Attainment Scalinc,: A General Ifethod for Evaluating
Ccnprehensive anc Programs/' Ccrmunity Mental Health Journal
(4) : 443-453. ^

Nie, N., Bent, D.H. , Hull, C.H.

1975 Statistical Pp.dcage for the Social Sciences , (2nd Edition)

New York: ricGrav-;-Hill.

Oppenheim, A.N.

1966 Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurorent , New York:

Basic Books.

Schatzman, L. and Strauss, A.

1973 Field Pcscarch: Stratccrios for a ITatural Socioloa\\

^**^^3 ^* "Follow Up by Phone or I/Iail," Evaluation 1(2): 25-26.

Vtebb, E.J., CarPEljell, D.T., Schwartz, R.D., Sechrest, L.

1966 Unobti-usivG I'essmes: Ifonroactive Pesearch in the Social

Sciences, Qiicago: Rand MiS^ally.

Ill MJTOmTED I1Z\N?GEIIEKr INFORMATION SYSTDB

1972 ' "Hunan Accountability in a Oantiunity liental Health Center:
Report of an /aibcnated System," Ooimtunity f!ental Health
Journal, 8: 251-260.

°^^1973' Gvidclines for a I lnij.Ti.rn Statistical and Accou nting Systor.

fr^r- rr^rr^ir.i^ i oTh ^. tir.alth Centers; A Vorl^ing Hanc;xok
with Ill"l rrtIvclY.d-Prcduct Tables, Docimcnt Fonps cr.d
•proccdurtis . vrr^ningtai, U.C.: U.S. Governrr^nt Printing
Office.

Crosby, E.L. and Crooney, J. P. ^ c

1971 ror,i.r.n mha get for Hospital Manageimnt . (Guidelines for

Health SerN,'ic-3 Research and Develornent. DeparteiETit of
Health, Education, and Welfare. Publication # KS.M 72-3026).
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

^^1972*^' "Kanagenent Inforrration Systems: Tools for Integrating
Human Services," Paper presented to 24th Institute on
Hospital and Conr.unity Psychiatry, St. louis, Missouri,
Septeirber 26, 1972.

Estes,^R^J. ..^eifare client Eraplqyability: A Model Assessment System,"
PubUc Vtelfare 32(4): 46-55.

Halpert, H.P., Horvath, W.J. and Young, J. P.

1970 An Adninistrator's Handbook on the Application o f Operations

to the McJu-icG T^-jit of M2iitzil Health Systers . (Publication if
1003) , V^ashington, D.C. : U.S. Goverranent Printing Office.

"^'^974"' ^anaae^Ent Information Systems in Mental Health (Volume -V).
Washington, D.C. : lUim.

Deraartment of Health, Education, and VJelfare

■ 1969 Car.Trjnity :: cr.tzl Health Center Data Systers: A Descrip tp.cr.

hi Existing Prograns. Washington, D.C. NIMH (PliS n3^^Y.

^^^"^^^^68^' ^^^Switch: A System Producing a Free tospital Case History
on Oocputfir," Lancet 2: 1230-33.

LeBreton, P.P.
1969

Noble, J.
1970

1971

^?^:'^f;^y^ TntcllicTonce^-in fonration Sy st^s. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin COrpany!!

"DGsignijig Inforrraticn Systems for Conprehcnsive Health
Planning," Ing-airy 7: 34-40.

"Protecting tlie Public's Privacy in COnputerizing Pfealth
and hclfarc Infonration Systerjs," Social V.'ork 16:35-41.

Person, P.H.

1971 A Statisti cal Inforr^ition Svsten for COr.T^u nitv ^•ental
Heallii Cc-ntcrs. (U.S. Public Health Service Mo. 1865) .
Washington, D.C. : U.S. Coverment Printing Office.

Salsberg, D.L.

1972 ^^coouiitij:g Guic^.^lines for .rontal Health Centers r^n rl
Relatoa Facilj.tic^;. iPublicaticn I^. KCM 72-5137) . ' v;ash-
ington, D.C. : U.S. Govorrarmt Printing Office.

Smith, T.S. and Soren^cn, J.E. (eds.)

1974 2£tcr,::te x- M^n,- cr^.-^nt Tnfoi^::ticn Svster.q for Cormritv

l^^^^-J2^thC_rt^ rod.A'ille, rd.: National Irititute
of Mental health.

Tischler, G.L.

1973 Psychiatric Utilization rcvicvr; An Accounta bilitv Tc-ahnici.-
New liayen. Conn. : Y?Ie University Institution for Social
and Policy Studies, Healtli Services Research Prograr-.."

Williairs, R.H. and Ozarin, L.D., (eds.)

^^^^ Conrnunitv re ntal Hcaltji: ;^ International P er.c^r^f-iv..

San Francisco: Josscy-Dass.

IV THE EVAI.UATIVE PKXISS Ar.D FUK'CTIOi:?!. IDLES OF THE EVALUATOR

Chesler, M. and Flanders, M.

1967 "Resistance to Research and Research Utilization: "Hie
Death and Life oi a Feedback Approach," Journal of
Applied Ikhavioral Science 3: 469-487.

Delbecq, A. and Vandc Ven,. A.

1971 "A Groui) Process :iodel for Problen Identification and

^^^^''■"^ ^if^"^'" Journal o£ Anplicx^ Echavioral Scie nrr
7 v4) : 466:490.

Glascr, CM., and Backer, T.E.
^ 1972 of Cur:,ticn5, for Frogram Ev^aluators Utilizing the

V Clinical Approach," LX-alujtion 1(1): 56-60.

ERIC

Glaser, E.M* and Tayler, s.H.

1973 "Factors Influencing the Success of ^^lied Research,"

ftnerican Psychologist 28: 140-146*

NeilsoHr T.

1975 "A Iheoretical Consideration of ProfessionaX Resistance

of Social ^'torkere to Evalviative Research r" unpublished
Master's IhesiSr School of Social Vtork, Iftiiversity of
Pennsylvania.

Perry, S.E.

1959 "Role Conflict, Role Definiticnr and Social Change
in a Clinical Research Organization ," Social Ftoro es
38: 62-65.

Rosenblatt, A.

1968 "The Practitioners Use and Evaluation of Research,"

Social Vtork 13: 53-59.

V g.TFWTS RiafTS AND OOmDElOTALITy

Araerican Psychological Association

1973 Ethical Princip3.es in the Conduct of Research with Human
Participants , VJashington: APA.

Department of Health, Education, and Vfelfare.

1972 Records, Carrputers, and the Rights of Citizens: Report of

the Secretary's Mvisory Cormittee on />utorated Pcrsoncd
Data SysteiTs . VJashington: Department of KE17 (OS i 73-94).

Kelman, H.

1968 A Tiipe to Speak: On Human Vsdues and Social Research

San Francisco: Jossey-Dass, Inc.

Rioe, D.P. and Cooper, B.S.

1967 "The Econonic Value of Human Life," American Journal of

Public Health 57: 1954-66. ^

Ttipodi, T.

1974 Usea and Abuses of Social Research in Social Wprk, New York?
Colunbia University Press.

Semlrar on Education
for

Management of Social Services

January 5, 1975

Major Issues In Educational Pro<yranis
on Manarenent

Surmary of the Prcbler^ and Issues In the PlanrJLr^., Developing anl Eval^iatins
and Interdisciplinary Educational Program subndtted by souinar participants.

!Ihls is a surrnary of the responses received prior to the seminar from nine
participants.

Values
( five responses )

I. Criteria are needed for selection of theories of management which cohere
with the pMloscphical i ethical bases of Social V:ork.

II. There is a seerir^ neutrality in rrana^er.ent approaches. Ihe professional
issues continue zo surface, hc'.;ever, and these need to be taken Into
consideraticn and programmed for, if Interdiscipllriary outcomes are to

be achieved.

III. Profession^ cultisr. of disciplines and social v;crk. Each has its ov.n
values and there ray be major differences that are at times antagonistic.

IV. Need to identify v:hether there are basic differences In values and explore
how kncv:lex:e and theory, in this regard, may be ccmpllr.entary, rather
than different.

V. Measure of effectiveness of educational program must include insuring a
primary ccncerr. for the human being v;ho is the reason for the service
agency to exist.

VI. How can the scientific aspects of management be reconciled or merged vrith
the value system of the social work profession?

VII. Despite the seeming neutrality in manager.ent approach-es, professional
Issues continue to surface and m^ust be considered and dealt with to Insure
a real Interdisciplinary outccme.

. Field Experiences
( three responses )

!• Providing acoroprlate field experiences, meaningful in learning the
management of social services.

II. The selection of placements (practicum) ani the deployment of the students.

-2-

ni.

II.

IV.

V.
VI.

I.
II.

in.

IV.
V.

VI.

ERIC

Appropriate field experiences in management at the masters level. Tasks
and Tonctions for the students to perform and type of supervision for
students .

Curriculum Planning and Development
(three responses)

Mix of theory and content in an interdisciplinary curriculum? Areas of
essential content in each discipline? Elenents of the interdisciplinary
curriculum? The total?

What are the criteria for interfacing an existing schools' curriculum, such .
as a Policy Planning and Adrlnistration tract, vriLth a related university
department offering a slTdlar masters?

VJhat are the curriculum considerations proven effective for Masters degree
In P. P. A.?

What elements of management are cormon to all management education and v;hich
presuppose a knowledge of and comnltment to social v:ork values am practice?

The most effective sequencing of courses in manager^ent to enhance learning.

Many schools of Social V/ork do have enphasis in the area of ccTinunity
planning and development. Hov/ are such distinguished from the planning
subsumed ;%lthln administration? l^Tiat courses or content provides an ecucaticn
for these tasks?

Organizing Managem.ent Courses
(four responses)

What Is an appropriate balance between utilizing faculty instructors who
are practitioners and those who are academicians?

Division of labor between business management faculty and social wrk
faculty - who presents basic content, theory and research based material?
Who applies content to social service settings?

How should faculty from the two disciplines be deployed?

Develop current bibliography on teaching management theory and skill.

How can Schools of Social Vfork allocate manpov:er and resources to provide
canpetent insturction in management and effective integration of the content?

What are the most effective classroan instructional experiences and modalities
In management education?

Notes on Seminar January 10 , 1975 - A.fl.

Recommendations on Cu rr lculuiii lO !^

Educational Pro^ramfl on Vana^^nftnt
The session began with presentation by txhe four v/ork groups on their
achievements. (See attached sheets). The discussion of these presenta-
tions and of the sessions all week br(:>kc into four areas: articulation
between schools of social work and schools of business, the structure
of an administration curriculum, content and gaps in content, and the
teaching of this content.

Articulation ; If indeed schools of social v/ork and schools of business
are going to join together to create curricula in administration, then
a great deal of work must be done continually on ?rciculation. It was
pointed out that joining together will be more and more fostered as
agencies in the public sector are interested in graduates with joint
MBA and MSVJ degrees. This can be facilitated in several ways. One
approach would be a capstone seminar taught jointly by business and
social work. At one school, the social work faculty sat in on the
business courses with the student?- so they could better help the
students to nake connections between the professions. It was noted that
this is expensive education. One suggestion was getting a research
grant to research the process and problems of articulation. (Frcinklin,
Lewis, Saunders)

Structure ; There v;as question as to whether or not the adminif.trator cf
a social v;ork agency needs to have skills in direct service (i.e,
casework, groupv;ork, etc.) There seened to be a general agreoment that
anyone coning into an MSW program in administrations would be coming out
of a direct service background and could spend both years of the I^'.SW
progrcun on administration. In other words, that background is irportant
but all of the placem.ent tim.c at the masters level shouJd be focused
on administration. (Garber, Godwin, Lewis)

Content and Gaps ; The continuing concern for the social v/ork values being
stressed in education for social work administrators was discussed by tnc
participants. As one participant put it, there should be passion as v/ell
as intellect in the education of these people. There is also a njed for
these social work administrators to have skills in as well as knowledge
of administration. It was brought up that much of the content which had
been presented at the seminar was inventions which people in administra-
tion have come up with and these will quickly fade to be replaced with
more recent inventions. What is needed is a focus on discoveries that
will last. It was pointed out, however, that both are needed as inventions
push one forward while discoveries take much more time. It was also
noted that what social work students need from the business courses are
practice principles as we have m social work. (Garber, Lewis, Yankey)

Two gaps in content were suggested. One is that the administrator needs
to know how the law works and what the legal considerations are in his
job. Second, the area of commujiication which was touched upon but is in
fact a major area for the administrator (Griffin).

Teaching ; In terms of teaching, it was stressed that with adult learners,
there should be: 1. high use of participation, 2. brief presentations
followed immediately by exercisos in application, 3. materials snould
be highly organized, and 4. informal exchange should be facilitated.
(Griffin, Lewis)

(Notes on seminar, January 10, 1975 A.M. cont.)

-2-

Another point was that the social work related administration materials
being created across the country needed to be pulled together and dispersed
perhaps through SRS. Last, it was suggested that doctoral programs
need to develop people who will do research in social work administra-
tion. (Griffin, Lewis)

er|c 6^

hminniiiTirfTiaaa

-2a-

DISCUSSION DRAFT
Laundry List of Identified Management Practices

^L. Budgeting - Financial Control - Grantsmanship - Planning -
Budgeting-control. Budget and Financial Accountability

2. Collective Bargaining - Industrial Relations

3. Organizational Behavior = Informal Behavior.

4. Political Process. Budgets and the Legislative process.

5. Public Finance = Taxation.

6. Managing the Knowledge Worker (Professional) - Management of
Human Resources.

7. Mcinagement Information Systems - Computer Analysis

8. The External Environment (Understanding, assessment and evaluation
of our environment; ie, economic, political)

9. Management Policies and Practices.

10. Computer systems (Information systems).

11. Social agency public relations (ie, dealing with various publics,
press relations, community relations, legislative relations,
community resources, fund raising).

12. Management philosophy.

13. Program planned budgeting.

14. Management by objectives.

15. Data processing techniques in social work research.

16. Applying management planning techniques to social service organiza-
tions.

17. Leadership.

18. Contract administration.

19. Motivation in social service organizations (human factors in agency
management, individual behavior and motivation)

20. Communications.

21. Program evaluations.

^^2. Managing change (initiating change in the welfare systems) .
23. Management of Time - effective executive.

Er|c • 67

-2b-

24. Management and the governing body - policy makers.

25. problem solving and decision making in social agencies.

26. Personnel policy, practices and procedures (ie, grievance procedures,
performance appraisal) .

27. PERT - Work planning.

28. The process of planning and control.

ERIC 68

(notes on seminar Jan. 10 , 1975 A.M. Cent.) -3-

• Group I
, Members: M. Bogner, D. Estes (School of Soc. Work), S. Good, j. Griffin,
Lewis, H. VJaters, B. Zucker (Wharton)

The group dispersed v;ith continuing education because all of the content
areas could be utilized depending on the needs of the group being
served.

BSW

From social work: ethical behavior (in anibiguous situations) , apprecia-
tion of differences, disciplined use of style and skill in communications
From business: decision theory, problem solving, case method, organiza-
tional behavior, computer systems, quantitative methods

MSW

Concentration in Meinaaement anrl Administration

I. Orienting

Organizational behavior, computer systems, quantitative methods

II. Care for Management

a. Financing resource management, budgeting, financial control,
grantsmanship, planning-budgeting - control, budget and financial
accountability; public finance, taxation; PPBS ; applying manageiricnt
planning tecnniques to social sei /ice organizations; contract administra-
tion; program evaluation; human accountability

b. Personnel resource management, collective bargaining, industrial
relations; managing the professional; motivation; personnel policy,
practices cind procedures.

c. Communication skills, understanding, assessing and evaluating
the agency environment; public relations, community relations, legislative
relations; leadersnip; communications; management and the board of
directors .

d. Program accountability, management information systens; MBO;
program evaluation; problem solving and decision making; PERT; process
of planning and control.

e. Managorr.ent policies, practices and objectives; managem.ent policies
and practices, management philosophy, managing change, managing time.

f. Societal processes, political processes, budgets and the legis-
lative process; the external environment; interorganizational operation.

DSW

Innovations in social service delivery, theories and construction of
theories in social administration, advanced practicq in social
administrations .

ERIC

iiiotes on seminar Jan. 10 # 1975 A.M. cont.) -4-

Group II

Members: R. Garber, M. Kelly, E. Leonard, H. Levin (School of Social
Work), J. Murphy, C. Parks (Wharton)

Assumptions :

Yl There will be a continuing cost crunch and social and rehabilitation
service agencies will be forced with mandated accountability.

2. The demand for social and rehabilitation services is increasing and
will continue to increase. Clients are demanding more and more
services and a higher quality of service

3. The demand for new adiTiinis trators is increasing and is expected to
continue to increase. This demand will be mer in two ways:

a. Current practitioners will experience upward mobility within
their agencies. Thus, the need for continuing education in management
and supervision training.

b. The increased concentration for MSW-DSW students in administra-
tion including joint degrees.

4. There will be a deflation of the MSW degree and the "credentials
push" will increase the number of students seeking admission to DSW
programs or other "life-long learning" educational experiences. In
other words, the MSW will not be the terminal educational experience.

Questions :

1. The question of sources of funding for continued education.

2. Should schools of social work at the masters level be producing
specialists or generalisrs?

3. Should the managers of the future be someone trained in a specialized
area of social work with a concentration in administration?

Content and Curricula

A. All Items #1-28 have potential as a short course, seminar, institute,
etc. - using "canned" programs - tailor-making special progran^s to
meet specific needs - future potential for contract arreingement between
universities and social agencies. /

B. l. The flexibility of the B3 curriculum is such that the student has
numerous opportunities to take courses in Business, Public Administration
etc. However, faculty counseling, direction and moral evasion is a
prerequisite.

2. A course in organizational behavior is perceived to be necessary
at all levels, i.e.,"BSW, MSW and DSW. The purpose of this course is
to raise the consciousness of the individual as to what it means zo work
in the organization.

C. The MSW programs are generally such that they do not allow for joint
degrees, programs, concentrations. The emphasis should, therefore, be
at the DSW level. Faculty counseling ai;d collegiality is necessary

for success of these ventures.

ERIC 70

(nptes on seminar January 10, 1975 A.M, cont.)

-5-

MSW

DSW

9. Management policies and prac-
tices

12. Management Philosophy
micro-level

4, Political Procc s
Budgets

Legislative Process - allocation

of funds

5. Public Finance

Taxation from Pvevenue Sources
as opposed to the expenditure
side

6a. Managing the Professional
Needs

Aspirations
Motivation of
6b. Management of Human Resources

recruitment, selection, placement
orientation, training & developm.e
performance appraisal
compensation, benefits
union -management relations
manpower planning
commun i ca t io n ( i n te r- f ace
internally and externally)

7. M.I.S. - Computer Analysis for
record keeping

as a planning tool for decision-
making

8. The external environment
economic

political
legislative

knowledge, expanding technology
social values
values of people

12. Management Philosophy
incorporated with #8

21. Program Evaluation

22. Management of change
initiating change
reacting to change

28. The planning process & control

Where do we go from here ?

Yl Overcome institurional barriers to joint programs

2. Use the student as a ''test" and let's get on with it (mauiagcment
concentrations) and

3. There will be little institutional cost, since we can use existing

•ourses with the exception of keystone eind capsrone semiriars (jointly)
aught) .

4. Any cooperative arrangement, curriculum changes, etc. must not lose
sight of the needs of society.

ERIC •

(notes on seminar, January 10, 1975 A.M. cont.)

-6-

Group III

Members: B. McCurdy (Advisory committee), C. O'Reilly, C. Sanders,
B. Schaub (School of Social Work, D. Whyte (Student), J. Yankey

Assumptions :

n Building curricula for specialists in social work administration

2. The figures of intensity for continuing education are normative
figures - the specific figures would depend on the needs of the specific
group being served.

3. Doctoral figures are for a generic base curriculum. f xin/^-...r<>.)' (.CT.<.ir--r

2. collective bargaining

In tens i tv

3. organization behavior

4. political processes

7. MIS

R« external envirnnment

9. management policies

10. computer systeras

11a. Public relations

b.CO

12. Management philosophy

13. PPB ^^^^^7^

14. MBO ^

15. Data processing research

17-

19. Leadership & motivation

18. Contract administration

20. Communication

21. Program evaluation

22. Managing change

23. Managing time

24. Managing & policy making bodies

25. Prob. solving - decision making

26. Personnel policy

27. PERT

28. Plcuining and Control

29.6 cr h,

Budget 1

Pub. Fin. 1-2

13.

PPB

■

14.

MBO 2

21.

Prog. Eval2

22.

27.

PERT 1

5.5

Linkages

over 4 linkages

ERIC

(notes on s^eminar, January 10, 1975 A.M. cont.)

-7-

Linkages

J.
28.

lOrg. Ben
iPlan & Cont.

3
2

[, 5.0

12.

17.

MIS

Manag. Phil
Leadership

19.

& motiv.

20.

Commun .

3.5 + ?

10.

Comp. Sys.

15.

Data Proc.

& Res .

1.0

1= in formed
2=interf ace
3=skill-know it

DSW

Budgeting

Collective

?-3

bargaining

organization

behavior

policies

14 r

2-3

16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

& 19

2-3

3
3
3
1
3
3

2-3

CONT. ED.

2-3
3

3 spec
3

2-3

2-3
2-3
2

3
3

2-3

2-3
2-3

(notes on seminar, January 10, 19 75 A.M. cont.)

Group IV

Members: R. Franklin, Gunter Geiss, P. Godwin (Advisor^' Committee),

H. Harlow, C. Mader (Wharton) , M. Patterson (Student) , George Plutchok

Content is grouped into nine areas;

I. Financial Elements - Budgeting, financial control, gran tsmanship ,
planning, budgeting, control, budget and financial accountability,
fiscal and program budgeting, PPBS , Public finance^ taxation.

II. Personnel Management - collecrive bargaining, industrial relations,
contract administration

III. Man-power development - staff development, supervision

IV. Organization theory and behavior - informal and formal organizations,
managing the professions, management of human resources, leadership,
motivation, communications, initiating managing change, management of
conflict, group processes.

V. Planning, control and evaluation process, MBO, PPBS, Program
evaluation, managment of time, problem solving and decision making, PERT,
policy making.

VI. Quantitative techniques, systems models and optimization, decision
theory, cost effectiveness, cost benefit, probability and statistical
inference, resource allocations, linear programming techniques, quality
control

VII. Computer technology, principles of computing, management informacion
systems, computer analysis, data processing techniques, inference and
prediction.

VIII. The External Environment, social agency public relations, public
finance, taxation, management and the board of directors, consumer
committees, state and federal departments.

IX. Management principles and practices, philosophy, policy.

Content and Levels of Education ;
BSW: IV-1, VIII-2

MSW: 1-3, II-3, III-l, IV-1, V-1, VI-2, VII-2, VIII-2, IX-3.
DSW: I-l, II-2, III-2, IV-1, V-1, VI-1, VII-1, VIII-1, IX-1
CE: All categories and with the level depending on the need.

-Degrees of importance ~)
1 - most important I
3 - least important /

Seminar for I^tlonal Project
on

Education for Management cf Social Service Programs
Januarj' 5, 1975

Barriers to setting up Interdisciplinary Educational Programs for Social
Service Administration

'Ihe following barriers were identified prior to the meeting by nine of the

I. The macropolltlcs of InterdlsclplLnes are so complex as to lead to
territorial protection rather than program outcomes.

II. Credentlallsm associated with meritocracy.

III. Incremental budgeting, based on line definition which will entitle onlv
certain professional to compensation.

IV. Professional cultlsm and turf protection

V. Precelved status differential between social work and other dicolpllnes
which put social work educators at disadvantage.

VI. Conpetition for scarce financial resources and for student enrollment in
ones own school.

Vn. Business and Social Work faculty and students don't understand one anothers
terminology.

VIII. Those in the disciplines of management science do not see reciprocal value
In Interdisciplinary teaching together with social v»rk.

IX. Business strategies appropriate to the business environment are not like
that of social work: For example, public service. versus corporate enter-
prise. Political arena versus non-political. Profit versus non-profit

UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVliNIA
MANAGEMENT SEMINAR 1/5/75

MANAGEMENT IN THE NON-PROPIT SOCIAL SERVICE ORGANIZATION

Harold Lewis

Thm la.t« fifties and early aixtiea in aocial aervice or94n<'
izations were bulliah yeara for innovatora. The mid-aixtlea to
the end of the decade aaw "problem aolvera" come into their own.
Now, as reaourcea contract and demand expanda, the call ia out
for managera. Ia it only by chance that thia cycle, often re-
peated in aocial welfare hiatory, appeara to coincide with per-
ioda of major aocial unreat, liberalization and reaction?
Coincidence or not, the fact ia that managera now enter center
atage, aa economic diatreaa and policitcal reaction threaten
aocial aervicea in all fields. In the eyea of profeaaionala aho
muat deliver the aervice, talk of budget cuta, peraonnel freezea,
program retrenchment, and organizational rigidity linked to
damanda for accountability, is managerial talk. Managera in auch
trying circumatances find themselves speaking of efficiency trtien
the profeaaional in daily practice speaka of insufficiency. Mana-
gers had beat be strong and wise people, for theirs is an unen-
vietble lot.

It is true that the need for intelligent and concerned manage-
ment of non-profit social service organizations has never been
greater. There are more of theae organ izationa, they are involved
in increasingly conplex and costly operations, they now influence
the lives and livelihoods or millions. But greater need, aa we
in welfare work know so well, ia not neceaaarily a condition fpr
attracting the better or the greater reaource. Adminiatratora

•2-

have Always bean thara, minding tha a tor a in social aarvicas
aganciaa* But apparently in tha ayaa of managara who can judge,
these administrators are not vary good managers. Moreover,
among social service administrators there are many who accept
thia avaXcjation, and in keeping with the culture of the profeas-
ion, readily volunteer their own feelings of inadequacy* The
upaurge in management courses and concentrations in Schoola of
Social Work, tha experiments in joint programs with Schools of
Buainasfl Administration and Public Administration, and workshops
such aa this, all testify to a degree of agreement between the
outside evaluation and those evaluated. For the aake of the
dialogue that this agreement initiates, I will assume these
judgments are correct. On the additional assumption that it is
the social work managers who seek to learn more about management
from the business school managers, and not the other way around,
I will also approach my assignment from the perspective of a
client seeking the service of managerial specialists*

Initially, it is important that we clarify our situation
what is it we want help with, and what factors in our circumstances
condition the use we can make of help that may be provided.
We come from a culture very different from that of the business
manager.^ As you know, we operate non-profit organizations and
can, with little effort, spend for very good purposes more than
we have, thereby incurring a deficit, but no loss in profit.

I am indebted to Albert 0. Kirschman, Exit, Voice and Loyalty :
Responses to Decline in Firms, Organizationr and States .
(Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1970 ) for
a number of analogs used in this paper.

-3-

When our conaumera no longer need our aervicea, an optlmiatio
interpretation ia that aucceaa haa been achieved: thia ia
hardly the caae in buaineaa when cuatoroera atop buying a firm' a
product. In the aocial aervice organization concern for fair-
neaa often takea precedence over efficiency. The aervice ethic
coonenda unequal advantage aa juatified only if it raiaea the
expectationa of the leaat advantaged. Thia requirea that equali
be treated equally, and unequala unequally. Since the moat
diaadvantaged are alao more likely to experience difficulty in
making timely and appropriate uae of opportunitieia, apecial
and coatly effort may be required to reach out ot them. Thia,
deapite the fact that other claimanta who do not need thia
apecial effort are aufficient in number to totally abaorb avail-
able reaourcea. What buaineas would apend reaourcea to attract
the moat difficult to aerve and uaually moat deprived cuatomer,
when there are more than enough cooperative and affluent cua-
tomera prepared to buy all it haa to sell? We understand that
in the buaineaa concern, when competition doea not bring effi-
ciency, adveraity will. In social aervice organizationa rarely
is competition a factor compelling efficiency and adveraity ia
not likely to be the result of a client taking his business
elsewhere. In fact, given our lack of reaourcea, inefficiency
may be a vital neceasity for organizational survival. In one
city I know quite well, if the society to protect children from
neglect and abuse systematically and efficiently reached out
and informed the total community of its charge and the aervices

ERIC 78

-4-

it vas 6xp«ctad to provide , not only would It be ovtndielmad
with n«edy cases It could not begin to ^erve, but ite overload
would awamp the courts, public aaai^tance agenciesr children's

institutions;, and so on. In our field, where need«*our
definition of demand*-fa*^ exceeds uxxoc^ted resources, & certain
anoitnt of selected inefficiency would appear ess«iil al for
survival » For these and other reasons, I suggest we cone from
organizational cultures that differ in Is^rtant respects from
the business firm and, until we fully appreciate the significance
of these differences, it may be diffic*jilt for each of us to
play his appropriate role in this service situation •

I must add a sense of reality to our request for help. We
realize that the loud clamor for our services that will Increase
with rising unemployment and inflation is not evidence of h
healthy demand. Succe. r measurea in terms of baelc human needs
met and social problems overcome ir increasingly unlikely in
these difficult times. We have more than once experienced
times when our clients vrere increasing in number and our means
for meeting their needs declining. Probably the only social
worker manager ev^r to reach the pinnacle of power in our coui|try,
Harry Hopkins, earned the respect of the President^ Congress, and
political pundit^ throughout our land, and later, the world,
because he remained true to the humane values of his profession
even as he carried out herculean managerial tasks under very
trying conditions. We on the firing line know that our consumers
are restless • They take seriously the promise of justice and

ERLC

falrMSs. Thay will not accept an afflclant operation that leaves
their neede unattended. We may be devoted to our task£, but we
are alao hisnan. Your help, to be useful, should provide ui with
supplements to our courage and convictions, to prepare us to
suffer the ^;^9er and distrust that will belwipad on our heads,
not for our failings, though they be many, but for the failings
of our profit-oriented political and economic institutions.

An important characteristic of social service organizations
is the monopoly they enjoy over the type of resource they offer
their clientele. Usually, as noted earlier, there are not com-
petitive services that offer our consumer options, should thay
find our performance unsatisfactory. Moreover, since the cost
of the service is rarely carried by consumer payments, the threat
of non-payment or withdrawal by individual recipients may be
mildly irritnting, but rarely fatal. Unlike the private monopoly
that public policies would regulate to protect the consumer fr6m
exploitation and profiteering, the non-profit social service
organization can hardly be accused of exercising these negative
options in order to maximize its own gain. Necessarily, the
critic of these organizations must look elsewhere to find fault,
and this leads directly to the traditional changes that have
always hounded the managers of social service programs: laxity,
antiquated methods, ineffective and Inefficient operations. What
ill serves the consumer they assume must be done by mismanagement
since other motives seem to be absent. How the agency offers
service, the service offered and tha lack of responsiveness of

-6-

the program to changing conditions are the key targets when
doubts about management occur.

Another characteristic of social service organizations is
the use of unit service cost in the absence of profit as a measure
of efficiency. When goals are displaced as functions, this also
serves as one measure of success. Those who recall the Ormsby*
Hill Family Agency Cost Studies and their follow--ups will re«*
member how cost measures were used in these ways. Thus, while
the non-profit organization and the profit organization rant to
maximize clients-consumer satisfaction and minimize client-
consumer ill will, the former would achieve this pxirpose at the
minimum cost per unit service, while the latter seeks to achieve
this purpose without threatening maximum profits. The point
noted earlier, that in the social service organization one can
incur deficits without a loss of profit, does suggest the role
of service costs as a possible equivalent to the firm*i3 profit
as an indicator of managerial achievement. Before examining
the cost per unit of service function and the client satisfaction
function as they relate to one another in setting managerial
goals, a comment on the latter function is in order.

client satisfaction in the non-profit social service agency
ifi in part dependent on the quality of service provided and in
part on the quality of the processes and procedures through
which the service is provided. Since so much of the service en-
tails intimate human contact between the worker and client,
these two elements — what is being provided and how it is being

ERIC 81

hiiiinniiinrfTiaaaa

-7-

provided— are not naadily separable. For clos^ helping relation-
ships to successfully serve as vehicles for service, it is crucial
that mutual trust infuse contacts. Trust r in tximr is evident
in the ability, willingness and opportunity to share of one's
self with another. In circumstances where one seeks social
service help, more often than not the client chooses an agency,
not the particular worker assigned to his or her case. (In fact,
in moL w circumstances, the client has the choice of only one
agency.) For this reason, trusting the agency is a major requi-
site for instilling trust in the worker-client relationship.
Good management should therefore communicate in the organizational
work of the agency those elements that promote trust. Developing
trust as an ingredient of practice must have a high priority in
any procedure instituted to assure accountability.

Returning now to the unit cost and satisfaction functions,
it is apparent that good management would se^k an appropriate
mix of both, and would normally find the ideal blend at any one
time, somewhere between the minimvim of the former and the maximum
of the latter. A good manager would be expected to provide
guidance in approaching this ideal blend even if it may not be
realized, or have only momentary value. Faulty management would
focus on one to the exclusion of the other. What we need help
with, as social service managers, is the body of established
principles of practice that one must follow to approach this
blend.

One additional observation is in order. Costs per unit in

ERIC

-8-

thm condition of excessive demand and fixed income that typically .
confront the social service or^ani nation. can be altered by chan-
ging worker productivity, operational efficiency, quality of
service and characteristics of clients. The options to increase
price and extend market are not usually available. Managers,
then, do in fact face limited internal choices in seeking to
lower unit costs without currently courting client ill-will.
They can hire less costly staff, require more productivity of
staff, limit waste, give less to each clienc, choose only the
clients who need l^ss. If none of the above work, the manager
can exercise control of intake-closing and opening admissions
for selected periods in order to manage with available resources,
but this would not necessarily control unit costs.

A third characterxatic of social service organizations we
need to consider is the requirem<)nt that the organization respect
the privacy of the client, and that this be distinguished from
its opposite, anonymity. In order to develop trust, opportxanity
must be provided to demonstrate its presence. Both the client
and worker must have something of their own that they are free
to share with the other. Wheze there is no privacy, there can
be no free choice to share, and trust is hardly likely to infuse
the relationship. Privacy, therefore, requires sufficient
personal contact to permit recognition of differences and ideo-
syncratic attributes. It requires a feeling and knowing hum<m
interface between client and agency. In the professional jargon,

ERIC 80

this Is knoum as individualizing each client-system. Anonymity
successfully masks client differences and deliberately seeks to
assure uniform treatment. It would minimize worker judgments.
Failure to appreciate the difference between privacy and anony-
mity and the destructive results that can follow when one is
confused with the other has been amply demonstrated in the New
York City experience with the separation of income maintenance
and service in the Department of Public Assistance. The clientele
of this agency now have somewhat less trust in this agency's
program than in the Nixon Presidency.

I have avoided discussion of two popular terms in the Ian**
guage of managers, effect and effectiveness, to guard against
confusing their meaning with issues of efficiency and account-
ability. Effectiveness measures are based on criterion variables
intended to judge achievement of goals associated with terminal
values. Effect, on the hand, is measured in relation to criteria
derived from purposes associated with instrumental values.
Whereas the former helps us in our judgment of a program's
success, the latter provides the basis for judging the achieve-
ments of a practice. Those who make thr^ Lr managerial decisions
based solely on effect measures risk Lhe tyranny of small de-
cisions. On the other hand, those who make their managerial
decisions based solely on effectiveness measures ^;isk remaining
in doubt as to what, in fact, did or did not help. An appro-
priate mix of both types of outcome measures would provide a
basis for choices to be informed by functional and ;*oal

-10-

achlevaiMnti. Por exunpltt, at the functional level it would be
important in a ne91ect of child situation to determine if the
help given did provide the euper^rieion that was previouHy abpent.
Thie is not an unusual neaaure effect. On the other hand, it
would be important to know that as a result of such improved
supervision, the child did in fact attend school regularly,
experience less interruption to expected routines because of
illness, incarceration, and so on. With the latter measure we
would know if the social prupose of thn program was being achieved.
To reiterate, effect tells us the relevance of our practice and
effectiveness tht relevance of our program. Having clarified
some meanings, established parameters that condition the culture
of our organize ti 08, and having suggested the crucial measures
of achievement that promise program success, it is possible to
address spacific issues of efficiency and accountability with
which I expect thos-e of us who manage non-profit social sei>vice
organizations could benefit most from your assistance.
Efficiency

Consider the following, not uncommon, experience in social
service agency personnel management. The agency asserts its
conviction that it ought to upgrade the educational preparation
of its staff to improve the quality and efficiency of its services.
In addition to an in-aervice training program, it proposes to
underwrite by released time or scholarship the costs of eligible
employees attending a graduate program offering advanced educa-
tion in an area of competence useful to the agency. After careful

erJc

ERIC

-11-

screening it selects the best candidates available on its staff,
they attend the program, return after graduation for an obligated
period, and leave the agency.

The worker who har benefited from the education has in-
creased his other economic options. With a new marketable com-
petence comes a wider range of choices, and greater maneuver-
ability in the job market. Thus, the agency locates its best
talent, helps this talent achieve and having achieved, this
talent seeks out the best agency which may not be the one that
invested in the worker, in a sense, this enlightened personnel
practice, if successful, will turn out all the shining lights
the agency has originally recruited to help assure its futiure.
But — and here the more interesting aspect of the process is
evident — the agency may still want to pursue this policy. It
can be rationalized as preparing pGrso»Tnei for the profession,
thus assuring the presence of coirpetent practitioners in other
programs to which this agency often must turn for help with its
clients. Theoretically, if all agencies followed the same
route, the general level of practice would improve, and the
market would ultiir^te'y distribute appropriately the various
talents needed. There may, however, be another reason for
maintaining this policy.

Supposing the agency, as much as the talented worker,
recognises the low level of its practice, but is faced with a
iocked-in senior staff v,ith little likelihood of turnover in
their positions. Let ur> ar.surae, as is frequently true, the

agency has a relative monopoly on employment opportunities for
a particular service 5;kill. In these circumstances staff at
the lower level in the agency progi-am have no place to go, in
the agency or elsewhere. A certain discontent is inevitable,
and the politics of c^rganii^ational practice can in time be
brutal. The more talented, frustrated employees may use their
ability to highlight for client and community alike the limit-
ations of the quality of service and may organize the staff to
••Fanshen" — as the Chinese call it. Faced with this possibility,
the organizations *P leadership can opt for education as an
t^ffective tool to defuse the powder-keg, decapitating the poten-
tial leadership through a process that provides the more able
with the options to go elsewhere.

This hypothetical case n*iee not fit a particular situation
in order that it serve our purposes. What it is meant to high-
light is the need to examine both the political and economic
factors that jointly influence managerial decisions. I believe
failure to do so may be the major inefficiency in social service
organizations. Talk of technology, of rational decision mecha-
nisms based on up-to-date inforratlon retrieval, of sound manage-
ment of fiscal resources, of control and planning systems, of
quality control, organizational statesmanship, of personnel
administration, of goa] -directed practice — these make for inter-
acting and useful dialogues, but with the best of these in
business, one encounters the Pennsylvania Railroad, the Lockheed,
the Pan Am syndrome. In social service organizations with

-13-

access to the more sophisticated technological hard and software —

such as Catholic Social Services, Public welfare departments,

etc.— the same syndrome is evident. Obviously, we need help

in formulating principles of managerial practice to guide us

in :a«king appropriate apolitical ar.l economic judgments. Having

such principles, we can at least hope to engage in a principled

practice, putting the best of available technologies on call

for use in achieving our goals and purposes.

Accountability

The issue most in need of attention in relation to account-
ability is possibly the key question: accountability to whom?
The earlier duscussion of the culture of the non-profit social
service organization considered the lack of economic options
open to the clients of these organizations. Lacking the choice
to go elsewhere, these consumers are a natural cohort for gen--
erating a political pressure group witli considerable sustaining
energies. As one wise observer of this ph» lomen has noted,
social service managers and staff like clients in trouble, but
not when they make troxible about their ^rouble.

But there is accountability to che funding source, account-
ability to the community, accountability to the profession,
accountability to one's superior and last, but not least,
accountability to one's self. VThich of all these accountabilities
deserve the highest; priority? Mechanisms and techniques for
assuring accountability will differ in accordance with the
interests of those for whor-. the resuxts are intended. Most

,8&

-14-

managers may find this question academic. Obviously # those
groups who can exercise the major influence will demand and
get the major attention. If the funding source threatens to
cut off payment/ their interest will be attended to and soon.
NOW/ as one carefully reviews the amount of clout likely to be
available to the different populations to whom one can be
accountable/ the weakest group may well be the least organized.
ThuS/ a unionized staff, or an organized profession, can make
a more telling demand than individual personnel in isolation.
A board in agreement, a single or major funding source, or
collaUDorcting funding sources, can speak in a more commanding
voice when united than when disagreements produce only disso-
nance and no clear message. Weakest of all is the unorganized
client whose problems bring him to the agency, and whose
personal inability to manage, seriously limits nis energies and
other resources which would be needed to command the accountabil-
ity that may be his due. Thus, I would expect that the major
help we need with problems of accountability are guiding princi-
ples ttat serve to inform our use of technologies in a manner
that would assist us in assuring a just and fair, not merely a
convenient, response to requests for accountability. This may
require, at times, that we assist in organizing our future
trouble makers.

In the short run, it would seem unlikely that managers will
promote a source of power that could be used to restrict their
choices. In the long run, failure to do so may not only restrict,

ERIC

-15-

but eliminate choice entirely.
The Practice Science of Management

I happen to agree with those management experts who recognize
a distinction between a theoretical and practice science. While
we need the former to tell us where to look and what to look
for, the latter provides us with the how, I have found that
practice science r because of the peculiar epistemology of pro-
fessions, is formulated in tezms of principles and rules , not
laws. And since practice sciences intend consequences^ they are
never value free. My presentation was intended to emphasize
the linkage of knowledge and value in professional managerial
practice. It can hardly be considered more than suggestive r but
I believe the topic we are addressing can hardly be considered
wellf if this linkage is ignored at any point in our discussion.
Summary

I have noted the following areas in which I believe your
help would serve both our immediate and long-term concerns.
We need to know principles of management which:

— will communicate in the organizational work of the agency
those elements that promote trust and concurrently respect privacy;

— would help us approach an appropriate mix of unit-cost and
client satisfaction functions;

— can provide us with a basis for choosing an appropriate
mix of effect and effectiveness measures to inform our managtirial
decisions;

— will guide us in making appropriate political and e< onowic

-16-

judgments affecting organizational efficiency; and

— will inform our use of technologies in a manner that would
assist us in assuring a just and fair^ not merely a convenient ^
response to requests for accountability.

University of Pcrincvl Vv^irda
Managcnv2nt Seminar
January 5, 1015

Herman Lsvin, D.S.V7.
School of Social V7ork
University of Pennsylvania

PROFESSIOMAL-BUREAUCRATIC CO?:rLICT IN SOCIAL AGENCIES

A FURTHER COJISIDERATIO::

This paper explores the manpower inplicaticns of a festering
disenchantment of agency personnel \:ith the social v;elfare es-
tablishment. The call for social workers to becor;e client and
Social v;elfare advocates or mediators and the resurgence of intersst
in clinical and private practice all attest to a concern of r.any
social v:orkors with their social agency relationships — to their
inability to find professional fulfillirent within organi::ational
constraints.^ A seemingly irreconcilable conflict betv;een prof e.srional
and organizational models of operation v/as indi.cated by Scott Briar
in an introduction to a set of papers dealing with central issues
of social v;ork practice:

There is no doubt that innovation and experimentation
. . .have been inhibited by the constraints
emanating from the bureaucratic organizations
v/ithin v;hich virtually all casework (substitute
"social v;ork") has been practiced throughout its
history. The organizational requirements of social
agencies generate pressures to substitute
routinization for innovation and rules f^r
the exercise of professional dir^creticn. ^

Hov;ever understandable professional disnatisf action m.iy be^ it

seems, unlikely r:hat large numbers of social v:orkers will move

toward a private solo practitioner model, especially now when the

social welfare and social action goals of the profession rore than

ERIC

-2-

ever require organized forms of planning and pressures.

The author contends that there is a great deal of commonality
of form and interest between the social work bureauracy and the
social work profession and that this commonality adds strength
to each and makes possible a contribution to social welfare that
neither could make alone. If this is true, attempting a resolution
Of the conflict is important if only because of the certainty that
the historic unity of social work and social agencies will be
further tested as social work increasingly becomes an "emerged
profession." Furthermore, the situation will be exacerbated by
pressure to redefine social service activities in order to make use
of the abilities of social workers with differing levels of pro-
fessional preparation. The successful use of all social work
personnel will very likely depend upon adherence to administrative
structures and procedures and the appropriate and innovative use
of graduate and bachelor degree, bureaucracy-wise social workers,
at the same time that new groups with less educational background
will be seeking their own professional identity. ^

Professionalism and Bureaucracy Defin ed

The development of social work as a profession parallels the
development of social agencies. The fact that social work emerged
cut of the necessities of social agencies and, indeed, that its
emergence was "facilitated by b'^rc-aucratic pressures nurturing
professionalism at the expense of voluntarism" is well known.
Thus, the early m.utual social work - social -nqenny dependence

o 93

ERIC

-3

ERIC

guaranteed the eventual professional-bureaucratic tensions which
plague their relationship today.

The social agency provided the worker with
opportunities for a creative professional
career^ but the "laws of organizational
behavior" required that the worker align
her individual needs with the standards
and procedures the agency had formulated
to help acconplish its ends with a minimum
of friction^ confusion^ and waste of personnel
or resources. 5

That such alignment was not easily accomplished is demonstrated
by the development of "supervision as a helping process akin to
casework. coupled with a stress upon the supervisor's singular
administrative responsibilities.^ This effort to reduce tensions
by integrating professional and bureaucratic roles in the person
of the supervisor was never a total success, if only because social
work^s search for status and acceptance as a profession could not
tolerate continued dependence upon administrative forms for its
ultimate existence. The failure to recognize the essential dis-
parity of the two roles leads in our own times to an unwillingness
to recognize common characteristics and, consequently, to a less-
ening of effective use of tried resources.

A review of the elements which comprise the meaning of pro-
fessionalism and bureaucracy is in order.'' Professionalism denotes
the follov/ing:

1. The application of objective standards of craftsmanship and
accomplishment to one's own work — that is, tb*^work on
one's own.

2. Autonomy of decision making and of performance.

3. Deference only to superior professional knowledge —
that is^ to colleagual authority.

4. Professional group orientation.

-4-

5. Allegiance to professional standards,

6. Rev;ard measured in professional status and stature,

7. Service, rather than self-interest, as a behavioral
principle .

Ir contrast, bureaucracy denotes the following:

1. Hierarchical control, supervision, and guidance.

2. A relationship among rank, ability, and power — that is,
lower rank is associated with lower abilities.

3. Allegiance to tl^e organization.

4. Reward measured in economic terms.

5. Reward related to rank, ability, and power — and or-
ganizational allegiance •

The historical practice of social work in the context of a
bureaucratic model has already been noted. A consequence of this
practice, also noted above, was that social v;ork differentiated
levels of professional stature and professional authority in
accordance with bureaucratic standards and, thus, professional
achievement and reward were linked v;ith hierarchical, administrative
rank. Until recently, the link v;as not seriously challenged and
even now crnates confusion in the assessment of professional status.

That managerial ability and professional competence are not
synonom.ous is, interestingly enough, a reality of which industry
and business, increasingly dependent upon scientific research, have
long been cognizant. Writing in the Harvard Dusinoss Review in 1952,
Druckcr stated the situation too strongly perhaps but, nevertheless,
forthrightly ;

EWC , or:

-5-

By and large the better a inan is in his
profession the poorer an administrator he
is likely to be. And the better a ran is
professionally, the less respect for ad-
ministrative work and administrative ability
he is likely to have. ...This means that the
'hierarchical) promotion is likely to go to
a man for whose professional abilities his
fellow workers have little respect.^

Making a similar point for a profession v/hose unique raison d'etre
lies essentially in the offer of a direct helping relationship,
Rosen wrote:

Any m.odel v/hich tends to remove more MSW social v/orkers
from the field and relegate them to positions
behind an administrative de.:k is dysfunctional
to client, community and the profession itself.

One need no+". agree that social workers who move into administrw^^
positions are less able or less respected to understand disaffectior
for a delivery system v;hose structure and rewards undervalue their
basic professional practice. Furthermore, a social agency system
which concretizes the superiority of administrative over professicna
behavior not only encourages the alienation of professionals but
also obscures areas of comr.on concern.

In summary, resolution of bureaucratic-professional conflict
demands:

1) recognition that the conflict exists, 2) a new approach on th^
part of social agencies to rewards and incentives for professional
practice, and 3) the willingness of social workers to recognize
the significance of social agencies for fulfilling the goals of soci
workc

o 96

ERIC

-6-

What Research Tells Us

A sociologist, Alvin Gou.ldner, dirccf^d one of the studies
v/hich brought v;ide-spread attention to the existence of bureaucratic-
professional conflict for the professional working in an organized
entity. Gouldner identified tv;o gross groupings in his study
population, Cosmopolitans, and Locals.

1. Cosinopoli tans ; those low in loyality to the eirploying
oroariization, high on comjnitirent to specialized role
skills, and likely to use an outer reference 7roup.

2. Locals: those high on loyality to the enploying organization
lov; on connitment'to specialized role skills, and likely

to use an inner reference group.

Among other differences, it was fpund that Cosmopolitans were rorc

likely than Locals "to maintain that if they saw no opportunity

to do their own personal research. . .they v;ould find their jobs less

satisfying," and the Cosmopolitans "shov/ed less organizational

il2

loyality. . .in that they would more recidily leave...."

Similar studies have demonstrated generally similar results. -^-^
in one, Billingsly explored the bureaucratic and professional orientat
ion patterns among professionally educated caseworkers in two
voluntary social agencies. His findings were "consistent with those
of other studies .. .which shew that workers with professional or-
ientations are rorc actively identified with their professional

J. J.- "14

groups than are those \;ho exhibit bureaucratic orientation.
Billingsly found that al30ut one-third of the staff of each of the
two agencies studies could be labeled "professionals" and had this
to say about them:

ERIC

-7-

When they perceive that professional standards
conflict with agency policies and procedures or
client needs y or community pressures^ they believe
they should give primary allegiance to the
professional standards.... They exhibit a ready
tendency to resolve role conflicts in favor of ^
professional standards. They may^ consequently ^
feel free to leave the agency if it interferes
with their professional practice. Many of the job
changes in social casework may be a reflection
of this orientation.^^

Billingsly concluded with a warning of possible stalemate between
opposing professional-bureaucratic forces:

As social v;ork develops as a profession it
is perhaps^ taking on more of the attributes of
professionalism. • • .At the same tir.e^ hov/ever^
social work agencies. • .may be shov;ing increasing
similarities v/ith other formal organizations^ with
their bureaucratic elements which do not always
fit into these professional standards. 16

Prophetically^ Gouldner has written thr;t "the full development
of modem patterns of administration ^ V7ith their characteristic
stress on expertise and scientific knowledge ^ appears to be contingent
on the decline of conflict among those factors which create divergence
of loyalities between organizational and professional realities.
How then to lessen the divergence of loyalities between social
agencies and social workers? How to permit the full development
of social services? ,

Areas of Commonality and Common Concern

Vinter has described the social v/orker as a sophisticated and
accompT.ished organization man.^^ This sophistication denotes an

ErJc 9»

-8-

ability to practice in and, of more profossjional significance,
to make use of organizational structure for social work helping
purposes. Such ability has been hamored out over the years since
the first social agency took shape in Buffalo in 1877. Logic would
suggest that the social worker-social aqency tie hns had sorre base
in soundness, over and above the historical accident of their joint
beginnings, vmat is it that has joined this special kind of pro-
fessional and special kind of organization? Is there reason to
believe that their tie can hold under current testing?

Assuming, as we already have, that bureaucracies and professions
have areas, of marked differences, they nevertheless share certain
essential characteristics. A singular and most important characteristic
shared by the social agency and social work is the purpose for which
each exists, that is, their corr.on social v/elfare purpose, their
responsibilitv fcr service to people in need. The social agency has
been cefir.ei £e "ar. organization to expresr. the v;ill of a society or
of sor.e crcuc in that society as to social welfare. "19 Although
social work has defied ultimate definition, the similarity of its
social welfare purpose is demonstrated in the profession's "VJorking
Definition of Social V7ork Practice":

Social work has developed out of a comjnunity
recognition of the need to provide services to
meet basic needs, services vhich require the in-
tervention of practitioners trained to understand
the services, thorselvos, the individuals, and
the means for brincing all together. Thus, there
is a social responsibility inherent m the

ERIC

practitioner's role for the way in which services
are rendered. "20

The unity of social welfare purpose and responsibil:' Vy carried by
the social agency and by social work-- the unity of their community
sanctioning — is made explicit by the V7orking Definition's statement
that pxablic agencies^ voluntary agencies^ and the organized professior
itself comprise the three sources from v/hich "the authority and
power of the practitioner" derive. ^1 Although the relationship
between professionals and social agencies has been sorely tried
since 1958, when the "Working Definition" was published, the definitic
has not been abandoned by the National Association of Social VTorkers.

The unifying purpose and responsibility of the social agency
and of social v7ork enhance the logic by v:hich other characteristics
which ordinarily separate bureaucracies from professions support a
contrary tendency in the social welfare establishment. Authority
and the use of authority, for example, are essential to the effective
operation of bureaucracies and professions. True, the peculiar
characteristic of bureaucratic authority is hierachiral in nature;
that of professions, knov;ledge based. In the first, the "ultimate
justification" of an act "is that it is in line with the organization*
rules and regulations, and that it has been approved. . .by a superior
rank. "22 jn the latter, the ultimate justification for an act "is
that it is to the best of the professional's knov;ledge, the right ^
act. '23 Nevertheless, the authority of each stems from reliance
upon a specified sphere of competence and this competence is .based
on a systematized, regulated, and disciplined core of knowledge.

iOO

-10-

Weber made the point for bureaucracies:

Bureaucratic adirinistration ir.eans fundamentally
the exercir.e of control on the bacis of knov/ledge.
This is the feature of it v;hich rna];on it specifically
rational. This consists on the one hand in
technical }vnov7lr?d';jfe , v/hich by itself, Is sufficient
to ensure it -a position of extraordinary pov;er.
But in addition to this, bureucratic or-
ganizations .have the tendency to increase
their pov^er still further by the ):nov;lGdge
growing out of experience in the service. 24

The statement explains the contribution that social v;orHers —
Vinter's sophisticated organizational iren — have made and can
continue to nake from "knowledge grov/ing out of experience in the
service" to th^ effectiveness of a delivery system that is a social
agency.

In bureaucracies, as in professions, authority and the use of
authority derive from and lead to technically competent performance.
In the preceding quotation, vreber indicated this. Elsewhere, he
furthers the point vhen he speaks of an "administrative organ"
as "a continus^us organization of offical function" v;ith specified
spheres of competence, the latter involving "obligations to perform. "25
Similarly, obligations flow from the claim of professional competence.

Professionals process . They profess to knov;
better than others the nature of certain
matters, and to knov; bettor than their clients
what ails them or their affairs. This is t!ie
essence of the professional idea.,,. ^

If, then, a social agency is an organization v;hose "co-operative
behaviors are equivalent to social work goals, "27 if thier authority

ERIC

101

-11-

and competence flov; from shared experience and sanctioning, they
Can indeed include among their obligations the obligation to perform
jointly to their fullest potential.

One must stress again that the obligations of social agencies
?nd of social work are impelled by their common social v;clfare purpose
to serve people in need and to serve society through the delineation
and it:iplementation of social v/clfare policy. The extent to v;hich

they hi '^-^ failed need not be attributed to the separate failure
of the nocial agency or of the professional social work*=?r. One
cannot lightly blame the other v;hen failure may be a function of
thier having lost sight of v/hat is jointly available for an enriched
fulfillment of society's mandate to both.

This necessity for bureauciccies and professions to meet ob-
ligations dra\;s attention to another coninon characteristic of social
agencies and of social v;ork, objectiveness. Positions in the
bureaucratic hierarchy are not: to bo appropriated for indivadtial
purposes but, rather, are formally established to s<^cu^e the purely
objective and independent character of the conduct of th > office (s)
so that (they are) oriented only t the relevant norms. Ob-
jectivity in relation to personnel and to task assignment is vital
to the efficient and effective operation of bureaucracies, since it
helps make the administrative organization "superior .. .in precision,
in stability, in the stringency of -Its discipline, and in its
reliability. "29 Objectivity, as a characteristic of professions, is
geared to persons served and the act of serving also requires relevant
norms.

(Professional) norms dictate not only that the
practitioner render technically coirpetent, high
quality service; but that he be impersonal,
objective (the professional avoids emotional

-12-

involvcnent) , irripurtial (he does not dis-
criminate, ho ctives cqurl nervicc regr.rdlecs
of personal sent irent) , and be irotivatcd by
a service itfoal (devotion to the client |s
interests r.orc than profit should be guide
decisions vhen the tv.'o are in conflict.) 30

The objectivity of a social agency-bureaucracy and of the social
work profession need not Oenotc lack of concern ilor clientele.
Quite the contrary, objectivity ao interpreted above by VJeber and
Wilensky and Lebeaux offer an unusual opportunity for equitable social
service delivery and, beyond that, for the observation of v;hat
current service tells us about the need for change and for dis-
tributive justice. ThQ. possibilities for joint bureaucratic-
professional effort on behalf of people hardly need rehearsing.

The achievement of potential, however, leads the social agency-
bureaucracy to a unique personnel situation, ^sliercas the hier-
archical s;ructuring of positions in the raodel bureaucracy assui:.cs
that competence and decisicn-naking authority rise vertically and
comes to final rest in the person of the administrator, such structuring
in the social agency places the direct service worker and direct
service decision-making authority at the lowest administrative
rungs. No matter what skill is involved in running the agency, the
basic technology of offering service and, therefore, the quality of
the agency rests with the social service worker. Thus, the tra-
ditional pyramidal diagram of bureaucratic structure has limited
reality for the output of a social agency dependent upon professionals

for service delivery.

The promotion by Schools of Socirl Work of professional ed-
ucation for social administration, whatever the validity, does not
resolve the dilemma, since having administrative positions filled by

ERiC lOG

-13-

social workers does not guarantee a colleagual nodel of agency op-
eration. History has given the lie to this. Nevertheless, v;here the
desire to do so exists, having administrative, line positions
filled by professionals can give hope to the matching of organization£
and professional goals, A truly co-operative wor.';ing relationship
can "mean that professional activity is recognized as the major
goal activity, and that the needs of professionals will be more
likely to receive understanding attention. "32 ^ requirement here it>
that professionals holding administrative positions value themsolvos
as social v;ork professionals.

A guarantee that professional activity v;ill continue central
to the social agency's operation can emerge from aclirission that each
needs the other for survival as viable contributors to social
v;elfare. The social v:elfare purpose of social agencies cannot be
accomplished, nor the loyalities of employees by retained, by
hiring professionally educated v;orkers who are treated and rev/ardod
as bureaucratic low-^men-on-the-totem-pole . Such treatment sirply
aggravates the "cosmopolitan" attitudes of professionals and en-
courages their search for more professionally fulfilling positions,

A commitment to professional skills will be
associated v;ith low organizational loyalty
only if professional opportunities are more
limited in the organization under consideration... ^

In other words, the social agency must tcikc heed of the meaning of
professionalism, of what it means to be a professional. It must
provide an atmosphere for professional practice and opportunities

o 104

ERIC

-14-

for professional development, as well as rev/ards conurcnsuratc with
professional stature, if it vn'.shcs to recruit and retain profccsionaln
for the practice of social v;ork.

Assuming that social workers v;ill continue, in the main, to
practice in social agencies, both because of the availability of job
opportunities and because of the opportunities for fulfilling pro--
fessional commitments, professionals m.ust explore v;illingly and
honestly their use of the social agency for social good and their
own part in any failure of social agencies to operate for social
welfare .

A satir^f actory integration is one in v;hich
the social v;orkor.,.is able to hold in-
compatible eleronts . . . in realistic ppr^^pqctive
and even c<>pitalii:e on* inherent ccriClict in
order to promote clu^nge. He does not rc\l;e the
assumptioii that liiritcd Gorvi ce . . .n\'^rnF no
service at cill, nor ccos he confuso hib ov;n
feelincs cf inadequacy as a helping person v:ith
the restrlctionfi the bufoaucracy places on him. 34

Even m.ore interesting for consideration by social v;oikerc is the
possibility that successful practice in social ar mcies can further
the em.ergence of social v;ork as a full-fledged profenc i.on and as
a guarantor of the well-being of society.

The people in organizations will be... the
innovators, the people v/ho push back the
frontiers of theoretical and practical
kno^'/lcdge related to their nrofension, v;ho
will invent nev;' ways of bringing professional
services to everyone, not merely to the
solvent or sophisticated fev;. Indood^..
it (is) likely that the professional
conscienco , the suprrogo, of rr.any

ERIC

105

-15-

professionals will be lodged in that segment
of professionals vho vrork in coirplicated
settings, for they r.uct^ in order to survive,
be sensitive to more problems and to a greater
variety of points of view.

106

FOOTMOTKS

See, for example: George A. Brager, "Advocacy and Political
Behavior," Social Work , Vol. 13 (April, 19G8) , 5-15; Lawrence
Shulman, A CasebooK oi: F o ci<-'l ror\- with__CroviDn • The r uUcil-.J r.r-
Model, (Nc\.' York: Council on yocj.ai'Vork ^'■,caIca{^^?^n7~T
Piliavin, "Restructuring The Provision of Social Services," Soci?3
Work , Vol. 13 (January, 1968), 34-41.

2Scott Briar; "Social Casev;ork: Pact, Present, and Future," Social
Work, Vol. 13, (January, 1968) 9-10.

3This article does not deal directly v.'ith the attack on profccr.i or.r j
credentiolir.n an attack vhich further ntr£'.incd relationchipj; be-
tween the profacr.ional and social p.^ency ontabliKhnentc , This
particular struggle v.'ould ceeir to have ground to a hr.lt with r,o:;.2
acceptance that there is value in formal recognition of levo3r: of
competence. S.-e, for exnrple, Donald relclptein, "Do \:e ITced Pvo-
fessions in Cur Society: Profofssionalicr; vcrfjur- Ccnsu!;.Grinri, "
So_qial V-orl; , Vol.lG (October, 1971), 5-11; and I'ranh rdcsnran
'Editorial: The ' Vocationaliaaticn ' of Higher Educatior, : Dvpi!-tt
the Poor," Social Policy , Vol. 2 (May/June, 1971) 3-4.

^Roy Lubovo, The Pr ofor. sio nal Altrujf;t, Clev; YOrk Athencum Pros'-.,
1960), p. 159. The entire book il;" a treatr.ent i detail of the
subject.

^ Ibid . , 169.

6 Ibid.

"^The elements are culled from many sourcen. See among others,
Peter F. Drucher, "Manageir.ent and the Professional Emolovco , "
Harvard Huf-incrs r.oviev , y.Y.X (Ilay/June, 1952), 84-90 Ernest
Grconv/ood, "Attrioutcs of a P.ofrsrion," Social V^ork , Vol. 2
(July, 1957), 45-56; Harold L. nileiisky, "'THo Trolc^sionalization
of Everyone?" Ar;Grican Journal of 5'ocioloay , Vol. 70 (September,
1964), 137-158; and Feldstoin, Op.~'cit.. "

8see: Paul VJeinberger, "Assessing Professional Status in Social
Welfare," Personnel Information; MASV^ Vol. 10 (July, 1967), 1 and
45-4 7. V7einberger reports a study of "Current reality" of social
work's status. The findings vrere based on a cornarison of "a
high-status group in social vork, agency aclninisitrators , " v:i th
psychiatrists in private practice and in institutions, clinical
psychologists, and public-school teachers. In other v;ordL;, a
group of administrators v;ho happen to be social v;or]:crs v.'erc
compared v;ith practitioners of other profe^.sions . VJc.inbergor found
thtit the social v.'O r.'c -a or.i n i s t r a to r s perceived thoir status as
exceeding the psychologists and teachers and approximating

ERIC

107

psychiatrists in private practice. Weinberqcr sees recruitncnt
possibilities in the fact that "positions of high profescional
status can be attained in social v;ork," He failed to recognize
the respect the social vorkcr-adninistratcrs ueevx to have for
profer>sionalc who rcnc^in in private prp.cticc and the deterrence
to recruitrcnt there might bo in finding that hiqh status in social
work is to be found in adrinifitrativc positions rather than in
professional practice •

^Drucker, Op. Cit .^ p. 86.

^^Alex Rosen, "Book Reviev;," Journal of Education for Social Wor kt
Vo. 4, (Fall, 1968) , 902 . ^ ~

l^Alvin W. Gouldner, "Cosmopolitans and Locals: Tov/ard 7^ Analyrris o
Latent Social Roles," Administrat ive Service Quarterly , XX, Part I
(December, 1957) 290 .

12 ibid . , 295.

^^See for e::ainple! Leonard Reisman, "A Study of Role Concepts in
Bureaucracy," S ocial Forces , XXV (Ilarch, 1S)49) 305-10; Peter :i.
Blau and Richard Scott, F orrp.l Crrr.ni nations , San Prancicco:
Chandler Publishing Co., 190;j.

^^7^drev7 Dillingsly, "Bureaucratic and Professional Orientation
Patterns in f^ocial Casev^ork," Socic.3 Forvico Revicv: , XXXVII
(Deceirher, 1964), 403.

ISibid. , 405.

l^ibid, , 407.

l^Gouldner, Part IT, (March, 1958) 466.

IBRobert, U. Vinter, "The Social Structure of Services" in Tssu os
in American Social V'oik , Alfred J. Kahn (ed.) , (New York:''Coiur;.bia
University Press , 1961) , p. 242.

^^Harleigh Trecker, Kev/ Understandings of A>dninistration (New York:
Association Press , 1961) , 44 .

20naSW^ "Working Definition of Social VJork Practice V " Social V^ork ,
Vol. 3 (April, 1958) .

2llbid.

22Ajnetai Etzioni, Modern Craanizaticns (Englev;ood Cliffs, Nev: Jersey:
Prentice Hall, Inc., 1964), 76.

23ibid.

lOG

M. Henderson and Talcott Parsons (eds.), Max Weber: Thg Theory
o r Social and Econoipic OrfTaiiiz«ntion (Nev.' York: The Free Press,
T366) 339. ' ^

25ibid., 330.

26EvcrGtt e. Huchos, "Profes£;ions, " in Kenneth S. Lynn (ed.), The

Profe ssiorr. i n /jr erica (Do.'^ton: Beacon Press, 1267) , p. 2.

. ■

27Robcrt I-. Barker, and ThoiT\a=; L. Drigqs, Differential Use of Social
VJork Manpov;or (n cv>' York: tIASU', 1968), p. 53.

28weber, 337.
29lbid.

30Harold L. Kilcnsky and Charles ^7. Lcbeaux, I ndustrirl So ciety
a nd Social \^ei:ar p (New York: Russell Saoe Fbundatiou, 19 bS')
p . 204 .

3lFor a sunr.iation of sore e>T»eri rents, see Archie. Ilenlc-n, "Cr-so-
work neyond Ditrerucrccy, " Prcial CLSOvorV. , Vol. 52 (April, 1971),
195-199.

32Etzioni, 82.

33Blau and Scott, 71.

34a. D. Green, "The Professional Social VTorker in the Bureaucracy,"
Social Service Review, XL (Karch, 1966), 80.

35Hughes, 12.

ERIC

109

innvERsm OF pomsyLVAm
waujimm sbokar 1/10/7$

EXPfitlEHCIHG SOCIAL WORK AOMINISIItATIOH HI THE SEVBTCIES

Irene F. Pernsley

I w glftd for tbe opportunity to participate in thla teainar
vith friends f colleagues, and as yet un indicted co--conspir&t;ors in a
plot to IsproYe aanag^aent in hiaian servies. I as also, of course,
very pleased to be asked to talk to tbls distinguished and select
group of participants.

For nany years I have spoken out ahout the need for aore
and hetter training for the manageaent of hunsn sorrioes; hov unprepared
ve are to deal vith aassive delivery systems, hov ill-equipped to assuae
responsibilities at higher levels of adalnistration, etc. The aoral to
all this, I suppose, is that speaker of brave words aust be prepared
for bold action. It is because I have struggled personally vith this
problon of aanageaent in the delivery of huaan sesrvices, and vant to
share soae of observations and experiences vith yor: that I coaie to
speak to you today.

As a fraae of reference for ay cooaents, I*d like to tell
you a little about our responsibility and vhat it is that ve are trying
to adainister. Our task here in this region is to aanage the Departaent
of Public WSelfare*B operations in the Southeastern part of the state •
Our physical area is deceptively saall vhen ve consider that our counties
(Bucks, Chester, Delavare, Montgonery, and Philadelphia) are only five
out of the Coamonvealth's 67 counties. Hovever, our four aillion residents
in this region constitute one-third of the state's population.

Vt are aore highly urbanized here, of course, because of Phila-
delphia's being located in this region. We disperse 52% of tbe state's
public assistance benefits. Forty- four percent of the state's aedical
assistance payaents are aade in this region. Thirty-five percent of the
people vLd use food staaps live here. One-third of the state's citizens
over 63 years of age live here. There is aore ainority representation
here than elsevhere in Pennsylvania. Ve eaploy nearly 12,000 peo^e in our
operations here, aost of thea in our seven institutions for the aentally
ill and aentally retarded. One-fo\irth of the state's institutionaliaed
population is in this region.

We supervise, license and inspect huaan service facilities
and prograas. As an .exaaple, a Regional Coaaissioner of Mmtal Health
supervises the superintendents of the aental health instituticms, and
specialised staff aonitor specific components of the operation such as
prngraa and adalnistration. We ovn and operate soae agencies and
institutions, ve regulate and fund others. 80, in the fiscal year
73*7U, our operating btadget for these five counties in the Southeastern
Region vas 16^5,000,000. This includes cash grants, aedical assistance.

110

food BismpBp md {(rants for progrtu Involrlng aontal rotardation^
■antal health, aging, cMld welfare, day oare, foster care, grants to
ooMunlties, purohase of senrloe oontraots for a whole range of serrloes
froa hoaeMkers to Nursing Hom Relooation Team* |645f 000.000 -> not
Terjr far behind the Philadelphia E3.eetric Budget idiioh was 1766,000,000
for the sen period and the sane geographic area. So, like it or not,
ve are big business* Human tferrloes is big business, and needs to be
addressed as such«

It. Levis, in his p^per, points out soae rerj essential
differences between our serrioes and clientele, and those of business*
Vb oannot, because of these differences, adopt wholesale the tools of
their trade* But the rapid and accelerating pace of sodal change, the
Increased ooaplezlty of the human problem, etc*, really do dictate the
need for constant updating of the tools of our own trade* U» can learn
as we hare In the past, f^m other prc^fessions and disciplines « and
management is one of them* But, I ask mrself a question - are we rea^f
for this? I understand today that you are - I am rery glad to know that*
Because jflt are, that doesn't msan that ererybody is, and it doesnH mean
that we won't hate second thoughts*

Mb have been enriched by content from and association with
other fields including psychology, psychiatr7, sociology, medicine, law*
There appears to have been a reluctance on both sides for social work
and management to Join forces as a structured part of an educ«(#ional
process* Has management science ' ^presented a Uireat to us? I think
that perhaps it has, and still doss - particularly in today's ollv«te
of suspicion about organisations and gOTemment(with good reason) and
in today's cla»or for accountability for expendltwe of taxpayers'
money, and of voluntary dollars as veil*

The demand is for people at the top iAxobb knowledge and skills
seem relevant to the above concerns of society, and ^diose knowledge and
skills can be dearly identified and oommunlcated* Trends in our Depart-
ment suggest a reaching out for skills that bring a different dimension
to the management of our mammoth task* You may know that our new
Secretary of Ublfare is an Industrial engineer and comes to us with
considerable management experience* ify Basic Fkmily Kaintenance office
which manages the public assistance program is staffed with industrial
engineers and systems analysts as well as with profesifional social
workers* The use of management personnel in that program is unusual
in our system, but has been the key in getting tne Job done*

I'm certain that you have already dealt with the <iuestion of
iidaether certain maxiagement concepts cxtd techniques run oontrary to the
value idilch we in social work place \xpon humanness, indi^duality, oboioe,
etc*, and whether we fear that a partnership with management will result
in the sacrifice of such valtaas to "efficiency" and words like that*
These were very real issues for me in coming to terms with the separation
of eligibility and service | for exaiqple* I know that help beyond
financial can be given to a public assistance applicant or a recipient

ERLC

111

throuj^ the use of the program requlresant* I We ee^n it happen^ Vrm
hum.^ a pert of that prooesai I know that the potential la there ^ and
that It ^8 endlesa* But In riev of the incr^aalng volume of deaand tq)on
ua (in the Philadelphia Oounty alonoi ve now average aoM 550 or aorc
applloatlona erery vx)rking daj)^ and the acardty of reaouroea^ It la
totally unreallatlo to try to approadh the Inoose aalntenanoe taak In
that mj.

We hare therefore Isolated that funotlon vhidh aoat lenda
Itaelf to a aystena approach and proceeded acoordingly* Thmn la no
leaa eoqphaala on the need for reapeot cf the client In obtaining and
glTlng Infomatlon neoeaeary to oonplete a tranaaotlon* I flrnly
believe that a ayatem vhlch reaults In prc«pt^ oourteoua Meting of
preaentlng need^ In this ease flnanolal» la a hunane qratea and
that Inoreaaed efflelenqy becosea an esqireaalon of huMnaneaa* I
vould add tiiat our Connnlaaloner for IncoM Malntenanoe^ uith hla
tralJtilng In Induatrlal engineering and bualneaa nanageaentt la aa
oonoemed aa I an that a family needing help today^ geta help today*
Ue hare alao gone far In exploring meohanlaed meana of grant coqiutatloa^
prooeaalng of data for uae aa supervisory/manageaient toola^ eto«^ and
look forward with excitement to the early aoqulaltlon of that oapablllty
which ve conalder an absolute neceaslty*

Our efforts toward improved management of social aervloea la
reflected in the Delaware Coianty Social Services model that waa developed
acme yeara ago with the technical assistance of the American Public
VIblfare issoclatlon* Joe Muirphy here (a seminar participant) had a
algnif leant part In helping us develop that model* In easence^ the
Social Servlcea product is clearly defined with a great deal of
apedfldty and quantified to the extent possible* Iftiita an ataffed
for varloua dealgnated specialties - services planning unlta^ faollitative
service units, a managCijent information systems unlt^ a service mobilisa-
tion unit^ etc« There is also computerized tabulation of data on case
openlnga^ on client characterlstlcsi service requests^ service products^
and delivery, unmet needs, and servica activity time* Uhlle this system
does not work perfectly, it is in place, and it represents some degree
of success in the use of ^propriate tocbnclcgy in the delivery of and
accountability for social Sdz«vice5*

There are other areas of knowledge and skill to idilch manage*
ment can provide input. Recognizing th^t the level of skill needed
relates to the levdl of manrgement in vM(± one is Involvedf I will
define bur level as '*rr.ther top" e little short of top^ but above
middle* From this level, my ke., staff r.uggest several areas ^re we
can benefit by content and experlcnoe fro:n the field of management*

InfoTmation 3yfltema

We need access to more current information - more accurate
Information - and sometimes^ more specific Information on iMch to baae
decisions, set priorities, make choices, project the consequences of
those (Voices; information \d.th iMch to plan more effectively, to
predict, and to hopefully have sono part In influencing changes rather

112

than responding to changes that hav« already occurred. And as I have
earlier indicated, our need in this region is clearly for a computerized
information system.

Manpower

- Screening oi manpower; the matching of ability and potential
with the task requirement. And while wo do have expertise here, costly
mistakes are made in the selection and promotion of personnel. We did

at one point, attempt an executive inven-^iory which seemed to hold promise
for selection of executive personnel iVom within our own resources.
There is some potential help for us in an expanded use of such a tool.

- The organization of manpower into patterns and relationships
which best facilitate the achievement of our mission, then the training
of that manpower, particularly training for management

- Labor relations, about >'hich I can hardly say enough. Some
years ago when labor was coming into its own in public service here, we
had some very difficult experiences as we engaged with staff who were
aspiring to organize, to become leaders, to maximize the potential of
the moment. Some factors were on our side - lots of stamina - ability
to analyze the dynamics of the Fituation, the issues and alternatives.
What was really needed was training • preparation to deal with this new
and different ball game. I believe that agencies and schools have a
responsibility to anticipate these kinds of need as they come tip on
the horizon, and to respond with appropriate training to enable admini-
strators to carry their responsibility. APWA did anticipate this need,
emd incorporated labor relations into regional conferences. I remember
very well being brash enough to lead such a pai^el in preparation for
which I read some books and the State Ijegis.lation. How little did I know!

You may have heard on KYW o^^ a statewide meeting todav through
which we hope a walk -out of institutional employees can be averted. This
illustrates one of those important differences between ourselves and
business. When labor walks out - in let's say the auto industry, cars
aren't made for awhile, money isn't made, money may even be lost. If
labor walks out of our institutions, we may lose lives. There are some
very fragile people in our instituitons « with very tenuous holds on
life. And, that's why we really ne'^d to know what we are doing in
this business.' There is no place fc" amateurism - too much is at stake.

Public Relations

Just as indurtry, unions, universities, churches, make use
of planned public relations e'^rortj} to fl;ain r:upport through public
understanding, so should those of us who administer human ser^.rLces
programs take this function seriously. Wo nhould certainly be aware
of the importancf* of public relations as a valuable toox, and develop
some ability to ascertain and evaluate public opinion, attitudes; to
develop policies and programs in ref5ponGe to those identified needs,
and of course to implement action which will ^arn public understanding.

ER?C . 11

aooiptanoe and support* And^ while I do know that a good produot »
a Job vbU dona - is the beat P.R* agent one can harr p that product
too naada to be ooKBunioatad and interpreted with akill. For axa^de^
our reoent var on Ineligibility in this state could hare been and nany
tlaea vaSy interpreted as anti-^the-poor^ as a more to "throw the buM
off welfare^* Or it oould have been interpreted an the reaponaible
effort lAloh it waa to aroid the losr* of millions of dollars in federal
sanctions 9 to insure that persons vtko are eligible do really recelTe

is due thdm^ and from the savings make additional benefits afall«»
ablSf Which we were able to do*

Ub are 9 as you well know, In an environnent ^diere oonpetition
for funds is rer/ great - \Aere other causes are aore popular than ours^
Iffective public education • public relations can be one of our nost
Ijqportant resources in this struggle.

I won't expand on other areas^ but the staff suggested sereral
acre wl^^ i^ch I concur^ including budgatin,^^ cost analysiS| decision*
Making .jxd problean-solTlng theory. I do not ar^m to suggest that an
admln1<)trator must be an expert in edl these areas* However | we at
least need to bo aware and conversant to the extent that we can recognise
the need for special assistance and can properly utilize staff or
oonsultants in these areas of specialty* )4ny of the safl» foroes are
at work in human services delivery as in other enterprises - rising
oosts and inflation^ oonsumer demands for greater quality^ public
demands for greater accotintabilityy internal demands for greater benefits
and participation! etc* I cannot suppoi^ too much the necessity for
sounds full preparation which ecu enable one to move into sudi challenges
with more than beginning competence and perform welly granting that
growth should occur with ei^qperience,

I cannot conclude wj.thout emphaaizxng the value of lAat we
do know* I have no quetitlon about +hat, ai cotald provide many illxistra--
tlons* I*m sure you couldy too. But to meet the demands of m a n a gin g
the big businoss vAich Humxn S^rvlco? lias bocoiro, we do^ in faot^ need
more* And I wlsa to oonvey a i*ense of urgenqy too about this need to
achieve a proper blend of knowledga and skill if we arc to produce
managers who can help us fulfill our responsibilitios to our citisens
and to otnr profession*

In dosingi^ I will road fron on rvrtiole which appeared in
our local Today ^s post on !fecembe* 13th* The headline: Ejcecutives
Deal with the Seventies' ca^alifin^je* It {for^c on to say that seldom
has the executive juite been subjected to 3uch pressure as it is now
enduring* And \^ether it can solve thes^^ problems at all is debatable*
A Dr* Jennings ytio is a maziage'^nt professor at Michigan State Ihiversity
is very concerned that many of the men who head the nation's largest
companies are ill -equipped tn deal with the roilti^-faceted challenges
before them* Products of the 1960's when the, focus of their efforts
was mainly on profits^ theso men are b^ing challonged now by capital
shortages^ consumerism^ ocological concerns^ nationalism^ oontrolSf
safety, equality, etc*, (and that lets u3 know that we don't have any

114

■Duopoly on thei proU.«Mof wuwg«aent). It In furthor §UMd that on
top of all thla» ez«eutlT»t are nov faoed with d«Mndf to bnWBist
titw lipntllT TIth' TULi laads m to oomdluda tltat in naatlnc tha
otaaUw^fa of tba ^m^XUa, aoelal yotk and ^anagaaent vould do waU
to laam flrai flfcflh 9\'^y*

ERIC

115

1974-1975

NATIONAL PROJECT ON EDUCATION
FOR MANAGEMENT OF SOCIAL SERVICES

THE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL WORK

AND THE WHARTON SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

REPORT ON A NATIONAL SURVEY OF 6 3 GRADUATE SCHOOLS OF
SOCIAL WORK OFFERiKG CONTIKJING EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN
SOCIAL \"JELFARE ADMINISTRATION AND MAN;\GEMENT

APRIL 1975

ELISABETH SCHAUB
M.S.W. , D.S.W.
PROJECT COORDINATOR

AND

SANDRA B. COHEN

iM.S.W.
DOCTORAL STUDENT

116

-1-

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Introduction ?

II. Purpose 2

III. Design 3

TV. Sample 4

V. Data analysis 4

VI. Conclusions, 7
Appendices

A. Sample Questionnaire 9

B. Table A 11

ERIC

117

I. Introduction

This survey of continuing education programs in social
welfare administration and management has been conducted as one
part of the National Project on Education for Management of
Social Services of the School of Social Work of the University
of Pennsylvania.* One key objective of this project is the
development of curriculum material for continuing education
programs in management and administration of social services.

There are two assumptions upon which the project is
based. The first is that the knowledge and technology of
business management science can be utilised by administrators
of social serviceji for more effective and efficient adininistra-
tion of their programs. The second is that programs of manage-
ment education should be developed by interprofessional colla-
boration between social work and business management education
to make the knowledge, drawn from business management, applicable
to social services administration and available to students in
administration .

II. Purpose

This survey had a three-fold purpose. The first was
to learn to what extent continuing education programs are
presently teaching managerial, administrative content in an
interdisciplinary or interprofessional manner.**

* The National Education for Management Project was funded by the
Social Rehabilitation Service of the Department of Health, Educa-
tion and Welfare, July 1, 1974-June 30, 1975 (Project #47-P90040/3-0J

** For the purpose of this survey, we are defining interdisciplin^^J
teaching as that approach which utilizes a member of a discipline

118

-3-

The second was to find out whether or not the
management content, whi.ch has been identified by this project
as being moct relevant to the educational nee^Js of social woi-k
administrators, is currently boing taught in programs of con-
tinuing education being offered to social v^ork adrpinistratoxj:t .
The third purpose was to identify any significant gaps in the
content of continuing education of:Carings and prey rams,
III. Do?:ign of uhc onn cire

The questionnaire wc^p dcc^ifjncjd to be ccinplctcd by
directors of continuing c-iducation programs in schools of
socir.l v;ork. The qviestions vrort^ rein tod to the knowledge
from mancigement science v;hxch has been identifjoci by the
faculty members from tlie School of Social VJork and the V^iarton
School as the most essential to be included in cm educational
curriculum for tlie aJini nif,tratioa of social services. Prior
to being administered, the qucsitionnaire w^s pretested by
doctoral students at the School of Social Work of the University
of Pennsylvania, and was designed to take about a quarter of
an hour to complete.

(e.g., economics, history, sociology, psychology, political
science, anthropology, manageiront science, and others) to tc: ch
knowledge from that di£;ciplinc relating the contont to the
educational aims and needs of a profession, Interprof ossionc 1
teaching mitjht involve lawyers, physici^ans, engineers, or public
administrators i^iruiltirly in pict;eiiLing knowlcago trom their
profes'^ions which is dconvid usofu] to other professions. It is
conceivable that bvOth interdisciplinary and interprof er^sional
teaching can be done concurrently within an educational program
in social work.

ERIC

119

IV. Sample

The sample surveyed consisted of sixty-three graduate
schools of social work which were identified from the Council
on Social Work Education's current listing of schools conducting
continuing education programs. Of the sixty-three questionnaire?
mailed, slightly more than one half (52%) were returned.

V. Data analysis /

Seventy-seven percent of the schools to which the \
questionnaire was directed are currently conducting programs
in social welfare adndnistration, and fifteen percent are in
the process of planning such programs. More than half (58 o)
of the programii: arc now taught in an interdisciplinary manner,
Thsre are eight schools planning to carry out such programs.
Forty-two percent of the programs now in operation are being
taught interprofessionally .

Table A represents the percentage of continuing education
programs currently teaching specified management curriculum
content. Thef^e percentages are important as one way of deter-
mining the X-ivel of current interest in the management curriculum
content specified by the Wharton School and the Snhool of
Social Work. A high percentage might indicate a ^igb level of
need for a specific management content area.

Three content areas are of particular interest in that
97% of the respondents identified them as presently being taught.
They are: (1) evaluation of agency program and performance;

120

-5-

(2) accountability; and (3) leadership influence.

The following arer<3 are currently being taught in 90'-
or more of the programs: control of agency performance;
intergroup behavior; and leadership styles.

With the exception of the "Decision Tree Method," a
technique used in cost benefit analysis, all of the content
listed is presently being taught by at least 731 of the res-
pondents (for exact percentages sae Table A) ,

The following chart shovs which of five content arcts,
included in the University of Pennsylvania curricular mat.criol,
are most frequently not included in the ccurf'.es offered by the
schools that participated in thic survey:

Content areas incluCecl in Nu.,;ber of schools in survrv not ii -

University oi Tg. iv.atcrial cl^'cUng this conl-ent in v. rcir crr.^

1. Program planning and

budgeting just more than one half

2. The decision tree method lens than one half

3. Measuring effectiveness
of client outreach

programs less than one half

4. Innovation and infor-
mation retrieval systems more than one fourth

5. conflict responses less than one fourth

Organizational behavior was ranked first by the
respondents among the content which administrators need to learn.
Program Development was ranked second as the most important,
and Lon g Range Planning , third. The category "other" followed
next in order of priority. Three respondents, rather than
selecting one of our categories, identified an "other" as their
first priority: the selections included fiscal re source

mc 121

development and allocation and budgeting ; ^ management styles
(i.e., managerial behavior); and planning^y organizincjr actuating
a n^S measuring objectives t

Courses that were identified by the respondents as
v'Turrontly being taught as specialized aspects of management
follow: social work management in health care settings?
personnel policies^ including advocacy policies? social action,
and agency budgeting. In a worhship entitled "How to Maximize
Utilization of Staff through Supervision," staff motivation,
setting of goaln, objectives, priorities, training and evalua-
tion of staff, and skills in organizational change were included ♦

Grant v/riting was identified by several respondents
as presently being offered in courses. Functional budgetincj
for social service executives,* multi-level objective setting
in social agencies/ accountability and information systems for
social agencies were also currently being taught as special
courses. "Administration of residential group homes for child
care" and "administration of aging** were typical of courses
offered to meet the educational needs of managerial personnel
in specialized fields.

CorJTifint^ nade by tv;o or more respondents concerning
any aspect of nanagc':"int content not covered in the questionnaire,
but of interest to sorrc of the respondents follow. The areas
of work planning inp] rrr/^ntation and review were said to be most
useful, including task analysis, performance review and manpower
planning. "Material covering management in public service

ERJC 122

-7-

institutions was not covered well in the selection" was the
coimtiont of one resj^ondoiit. Four respondents identified toaching
methodology as "equally important as content," Skill md ]:no\:-
ledge in generating fending and allocations of funds in relation
to program developit^ant and service delivery, a basic task in
executive rac«nagement , V7ds also highlighted,
VI. Sr:n :arj : y and cQpc3r>' i^rs

The rer.pon^'^s to this nurvoy are limited to 34 out o^
63 graduate bchocJs of uocicil woih \;iLh continuing education
programs. The inf OiH^iation obtaiuju from the 34 schools may
bcs bias^a by half of the ScUaplo failing to respond, and shoulci
be used \nth caution for this rcc:son. The schools that did
respond rcnc ' t a signiticant involvement v;ith teaching manage-
ment knov;lerigj and skillr-* in iiitcroisci pi ijiary programs.

The throe major cateqories designated by the Wharton
School ond Lhc School of Social Work--program development,
orgcini^.a tior.il behavior, and long range planning — v^ere confirmed
as the three roost important content areas to include in a
curriculum for managers of social services.

The ma^cr gaps indicated by the respondents are in
the ar(»r*s oi ef fectivenors, client outreach programs, infornr-, nn
retrieval systems, and organizational innovation. Fiscal mai xtc-
ment content was specified as particularly needed in a manaqcr.u^nt
curriculum, by a significant number of respondents.

With the advent of the new Social Services Act (Tit. To

ERLC

123

-8-

the importance of including these management content areas in
a ciirriculum for managers of social services may become even
more apparent.

o 124

ERIC

APPENDIX A

SURVEY OF CONTINUING EDUCATION PKOCnAMS
IN SOCIAL WELFARE ADMINISTRATION AND M/vNAGEMENT

QUESTI0f7>!AIR S

DIRECTIONS: HLaeo a chock noxt to tho correct answor.

Arc you currently conducting or do you plan to eonJuct witliin tho nr^xt
year programs in social volfa^ administration and r-anagcn.ontV

YES

If yos, arc your programs taught in an intordisciplinary or lntCi-p. o-
fossional manner?

YES

If yos, ploaso indicate which:
IKTERDISCJ''*.in«RY

INTIuRPROFESSIONAL

II. Do you Include tho f oLlovdrt; content arei.£5 in your pi OGr-J -i?

1, PHoaRAM i,o.

ERIC

A« Program pl^TAiir^z ^^xd bi?d;^otin3:

D. AccoUTitibiliiy :

2. 0Tr.^J?T7ATT0H/tL r'HAVTOn : l.o.

A. Intorsroup bohivlor ^
tt. Loadorship liifluonco

B. Cost B^nof^.t !>\,'alixatlon
a* Cost Assossir^nt

b. Docrltion Tioo nothod

CrlUcal Path Chirt Plans
d. Port Charts

C* Examination Procoduro
a* Organization structux*o
b. Conflict rosponso

D. Managonont Responsibility
a* Ach:lovoir!ont notivation
b. Loadorship ^tylo

c» Cor.iTninication tcclmiquos, all written,
tapoSf oarousols

3. LOKG RAKGE PIJV!n:iT!G , i.o.

A# Envlronnontal concern

B. Mission goals

C. Effoctlvonoss of client outi-oach prograns
Innovation

Et Imploinontation of arcncy mission
F. Information rotriovul system

125

YES
YK?*
Yt.s'

res'

YES

rS
r.o

" i.'b

YES

IJO

YES

j:o~

YES* '

i:o

YES

Y,6Z

YES

i:o

YEf?"

YES*

nol

YES

i:o

YES

no]

YES

HI* Maiqr adnlnistrators aro of tho opinion tYjit learning somothins nbcut

nanagorlal programs is nocossary. Ploaso rank tho folloving coniont fi^^cas i
order of tho priority you placo on tho content ad'oinistrators need to loai*n<
FIaco a (1) In tho box next to your first ehoicot (2) for your second choic<
(3) for your third choice, and (k) for other.

A» IVogram Dcvolopncnt

B» Organizational Behavior

C» .p^.^.-,.*— ^ Range Planning
D# ^ Other

£• If other t please indicate

IVt If you aro currently teaching a course comparable to managoinonti please
identify* (i. e. , program contont— •Administration of Programs for the /iSiA3

V» Any coiranonts you may havo concerning ony aspect of management content not
covered in tlio questionnaire.

126

APPENDIX D>

TABLE A.

PERCENTAGE OF CONTINUING EDUCATION PROGRAMS
CURRENTLY TEACHING SPECIFIED MANAGEMPNT
CURRICULUM CONTENT

Co'- 1 I'. 'Mr r 1 ' ^ Vvi 1 1 " nn
.-.T " CK'\ / ' ' ' ' nr

c. C ti^icnl I'ut i. Chjri .
I'cj t CI.-: Lb

b . Conf 1 ict ic ' i o.iLc

a. Acm^^v^ > 1 L J n A vat a on

b. 1a rtO'M rli ip '.t; io

c. Coir.i.unic, I )f n lochniqiK' ,
wiJLton, t«.ii/' s, caroasol'

KnviriK't n t a 1^ C'>nr .' r n

IT '1' K ' ' >• .'1 J- ' A 1' n'

all

J 1< K ^ J •! • J

'»"t J ' 7

C7 .9

9.1

90.9

C.7

sr .7

9C.7

90.9

r..7

1? ,1

/? .7

t>y . /

'>!

72. /

24.2

72. 7

24.2

l?.l

6^.C.

9.1

11. 1

?4 .2

B7.n

9.1

7 0.^

15.?

81.8

6.1

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72. n

24.2

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IS. 2

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42.4

CO. /

n . V

ERJC

127

1974-1975

NATIONAL PROJECT ON EDUCATION FOR
MAI^AGEMENT OF SOCIAL SERVICES

THE SCHOOL OF SOCIAL WORK AND

THE VJHARTON SCHOOL
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

Report on a survey of thirty-eioht short-term cclucationcil
programs on administration and management in the social service
funded for July 1974 through June, 1975 by the Social and
Rehabilitation Services, Department of Health Education and
Welfare under Title IV, Section 426 of the Social Security Act.

Mrs. Marlene Patterson
Doctoral Student in School of Social Work
University of Pennsylvania
and

Staff Assistant, National Project
May 1975

128

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This is a report on thirty-eight short-term projects
funded for the fiscal year July, 1974 through June, 19 75, by
the Social Rehabilitation .'Services, Departmont of Health,
Education and Welfare, under Title IV, Section 426 of the
Amendments to the Social Security Act. The Common goal shared
by the projects was that of enhancing administrative; and manage-
ment capacities in the social services.

Purpose

This survey was com.pleted by the v.'riter in her capacity
as a Staff Assistant for the I3ational Project on Education for
Management of Social Services. The purpose of undertaking the
survey v;as to Iqarn more about the current state of the art
throughout colleges and universities throughout the country in
providing short term educational offerings to enhance administration
and m.anagement pf social services.

Methodology

The proposals from, thirty-eight projects funded by the
Department of Health Education and Welfare were reviewed in an
attempt to identify the commonalities in their approaches to
assessing and meeting top and middle management needs for
training .

In addition, selected representatives from the faculty
among them, conducting interdisciplinary projects, were inter-
viewed using the same schedule of questions with a few additions.
The supplementary questions were directed to learning of possible
Changes in the programs (m?de later than the original proposals)

er|c

-2-

and also to elicit general reactions and impressions from the
participating faculty about their conjoint efforts.

The thirty-eight projects were spread throughout the
country in a variety of institutions of higher education. The
thirty-eight proposals in nearly every region of the country
were diverse. Their objectives and content differed. Some
projects were quite complex with several discrete, component
parts. Otten thero was a mix of training for direct service
and training for middle and top iranagement. For the purpose of
this reviev; which is focused on management content the direct
service segrrent has been oritted from the analysis.

Only one of the projects revievred offered a degree program
in administration in social service. This project entitled
Urban Leadership r!anaqeT?.ont and Administration was designed to
offer a program leading to a two-year MSV degree to minority
group students. The current students were Blacks and Puerto
Ricans. The remainder of the 38 projects v^ere short-term
training projects.

In 1974, faculty from the School of Social Work and the
Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania jointly identified
a core curriculum in management and administration. The following
seven content areas were selected as substantive ones. They
can and have been elaborated on at some length, however, here
they are given in sketch: 1) Organizational Behavior, 2)
Program Planning, Development and Implementation, 3) Leadership
and Personnel I!anagement, 4) Financial Planning and Account-

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130

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abilityr 5) Con^munication and Information Systems, 6) Program
Evaluation, 7) The External Environment of the Organization.

The short tern training programs v/ere revicv^ed to find out
whether or not the content selected for them was similar to or
different frc^ the content selected as the most important to
enhance manacor.ent and supervisory skills by thp faculty at Ifhc
University of Pennsylvania,

All the educational prograr^s studied could be divided
into four categories in relation to their educational content
and their selection of instructional faculty:

Category Educational Content Numt:)er of Proc rciTS

and Use of Faculty

Broad manc^gerent and 19
administrative content
v/ith an interdisciplinary
or interprofessional*
faculty group teaching.

Broad m.anagement and 10
administrative content
v;ith social v/ork and
Social Welfare faculty
teaching.

Concentration on only 4
one special aspect of
management v;ith faculty
with expertise in that
aspect teaching ad-
ministrative .

No administrative 5
content.

Total 38

♦In this report, interdisciplinary refers to conjoint educational
efforts airong acaderic disciplines such as sociology, psycholoay^
anthropology and social \:or].. Interprofessional refers to
similar coil£iboratiQn arong the faculty morters from various
professions such as social work^ law, med;Lcine and management,

. 131

III

One of the striking commonalities among many of the proposals
was the clear recognition that needs ar,sessment must involve
the target group. As the writer of one project put it, "we
reject the idea that short term training can be a pre-packaged
set of materials or lectures. This is impossible no matter
how skilled the trainer. It is desirable that each training
project create a process among the trainers, the agency and the
personnel to be trained." Anothor v;riter stated that "?n in-
service training program must be flexibly responsive to the
changing needs of the practitioners." This meant that curriculum
design v;as conducted as an on-going process, responsive to the
needs of consuircrs of the training v/ithin the priorities defined
by the state and federal agencies responsible for the funding •

These needs assessments soliciting and utilizing in-put from
the potential consumers of the training program were conducted
in a variety of ways. I v;ill describe one model briefly to give
an indication of the scope and complexity of this approach.
The project at San Jose State University employed a program
planning model developed by Andre DelBec and Andrew VanderVen.
This model requires specific phases, group techniques and group
roles in developing a program plan.

Phase One m.ay be summarized as Needs Exploration . It

involved the managers and delivers of child welfare

services .

Phase Tv70 was entitled Knov;ledge Exploration ; the in-
volvement of training resource individuals and organizations

132

-5-

was enlistod here.

Phase Throe relates to Priority Povoloopcnt , This
involved the training resource people and project plannincj
staff. Pha$e Foui v:a? l^rcgram Dc-volon ir.ont , Aqain,
the project plannincj staff v;a^j involved.

To ciccom.plish their tank, the group at San Jose formed tv:o
task forces to focus on need assosr^mont. Membership v;as drav;n
from the staff of chj3d welfare agenciey. Taj=^k Force A focused
on the jnanagcincnt of child welfare service delivery syste^r.g.

Task Force B focur.ed on the identification of training
needs in a program n^rvice area, i.e., child cibuse. The
Task Force on management training needs v:as designed to have
tv;o cub-groups also. Sub-group A \;ac com.pof^ed of adininiiJtVcitors
and managers from local child welfare agnociec. They acldror.::ed
themselves to management training needs. Sub-Group B was
composed of 12 people from local child v;elfare agencies v;ho
addressed themselves to prioritief? inprogram service training.
An additional step in these assessments involved the use of
some recent reports from the .Mental Health Conumssion of the
Comprehensive Health Planning Association of the county.

The San Jose group then established two task forces made up
of training resources personnel. They were organized in order to
clarify needs and dcvclope training designs. They gathered
information by telephone survey and through correspondence.
These efforts elicited inforruation about a nuiiil^er of issues
and probelms. They were grouped into 8 catagories:

ERIC

13G

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1) organizational development 2) community development

3) training 4) social policy 5) board training 6) client

systems 7) management theory and method 8) line supervision*

The result of this elaborate planning model v;as an impre.csive

proposal v;ith genuine participation at manay levels. Other

Proposals were not as elaborate r yet represented brocid based

planning.

It has been observed that the startling growth of financing
for social v;clfare programs places these programs under increasing
pressures to be accountable for the public funds they receive
and for what is and is not accomplished with these funds. With
the core content for administration in social services developed
at the University of Pennsylvania in mind, the projects v;ere
reviev;ed particularly for those key areas which relate most
directly to accountability. In the twenty-eight projects aimed
at training top and middle management (this includes those v/ith
interdisciplinary and interprofessional faculty as well as
those conducted by faculty from, a single discipline) the
follov;ing key areas were reviewed and identified: 1) Financial
Management 2) Accountability 3) Systems Analysis for Human
Services 4) Program Evaluation and Monitoring 5) Communication
(including consumer participation and public relations) with the
external environment 6) Specific techniques for planning and
control such as Management by Objectives 7) I!anagem.ent in-
formation systems r decision theory and operations research*
The following is a tally of the number of projects including

« 134

ERLC

-7-

these key areas in their teaching. The v/ritcr recognizes tlir,t
there may be son^c inadv^srtnnt omicfsions. However, this brief
tally gives some idea of the priorities selected as educational
content for iaanac;ciial training by faculties responsible for
carrying out those projects.

Table 1, Subject 7\reas of Tv/cnty-cight projects^'^of fering
training in manc^cjCjT.ent to social service a<lja3 nistrators in
l97>!-75.

Subject Aveg^ . Number of Projoctr.

— ^ Includi;:y Thcr.e

Subject Lyc'c.' '

Program Evaluation and r:onitoring 15

Financial Management 14

Planning and Control Techniques, 9
(mainly management by objectives)

Managom.cnt Information Systems, Decision 6
Theory, Operations research

Accountability 6

ComjTiuni cation with External Environment 4

Systems /analysis for Human Services 3

♦Financed by *428 funds from the U.S.A. Department of Health,
Education, and V^olfare and conducted by universities.

135

ERIC

-8-

There v;as a conssidorable degree of varintion and creativity
among the project offerings. One project for example, propoocd
to use I^anagcnent by Objectives as the approach to teaching
corpjnuni cation skills, financial budgeting and personnel ad-
rainistrc\tion. One project focused on organizational dcvcloprcnt
with a support system build in to the training design. Each
participant had a partner from his place of work at the training
program. This project also included sessions on coirorunity
development and consumer participation.

The projects offered under category 3 - those \;hich v:ore
of an adninistrativo thrust yet highly specific , dealt vith the
following topics: 1- Functional job analysis, 2- Rationalization
of personnel and traini.ig systesn, 3- Conflict resolutions and
the production of a vidio tape focusing on this management
concern, 4- Supervision by objectives with job performance
evaluation related to the contractual goals and objectives of
workers and supervisors.

Category 4 Non-iranaccront Projects

In some cases it was difficult to draw a fine line discerning
those projects that for our purposes were not considered education
for management. .These generally were short-term training projects
for direct service workers to enhance their skills in serving
children and families. Exairples of this group are as folloi.s:
1) A child Welfare Training Project for abused and neglected
children - 2) A project on supervision and consultation focu-cd
on both the supervisory and the teacning responsibilities of

13G

-9-

supervisors.. Although in v^ono of those projects, reference
is made to the adr.ini£:trativo, managerial tasks inherent in the
supervisory and the v;orherr role, for our purposes this did
not v;arrant classification as a inanagemcnt project.

One project in ^h:s catagory vas totally different in that
it realted to Lhe dovelopnont of a training tool; namaly, a
monograph analyzing contract rural services.

Goals for chile! vjelfare services idealistically stated,
usually include statements of the intent to respond to the needs
of children \7j thout regard to race, color, religion or ethnic
background. To do this rocuirer. soira conscious efforts on tue
part of mani^geirent to engr:re in behaviors designed to counter-
act the backgrouj^d pehnorcnon of ins^titutional racism. The
omission of such concerns from the training of managers for the
social services constitutes a serious oversight. For exan^pie,
within the realm of accountability, providing equal einployrant
opportunities represents an institutionalized managerial eff.'ort
to reduce and end certain aspects of institutional racism
and sexism. Training could provide the technical advice required
for im.plementating these objectives and also stimulate a
supportive setting in v;hich the administrator could struggle
with his or her o\m position, v;hile exposed to a theoretical
knowledge base. v:ithin the planning and decision-making role
of the administrator there are num.erous occasions for action
either to counteract or to acquiese to institutional racism.

In only one proposal v.'as a plan for training and content

137

-10-

designed to counter the effects of institutional racism on
child welfare services. In tv:o proposals where the potential
clients for social services obvioui;ly v;cre of non-White, non-
Eureopean racia] and cultural bacjrground, consideration was
given to the ethnic and cultural variables that effect the
delivery of child welfare services. In the other similar
prljects this training content was completely omitted,

Undoubtably racial and ethnic minorities cor.pose a portion
of the staff and of the clientele of many of the projects. By
the omission, a valuable opportunity for the trainers and tenchorn
of managers and administrators to address the issue of racism,
seems to be lost. There are many posriiblc ways that such rnaterii 3
could be introduced in the traininc; program as a natural part.
For example, it could be done in material on the role of th<^i
manager as leader or on the history and psychology of the
organization. The notions of hierarchy and the workers place
could be related to the Am.erican heritage of slavery and the
caste system. This heritage has implications for the degree to
which modern m.anagers of social services are free and are pre-
pared to implement equal employment mandates within public and
private organizations. It also effects the extent to v/hich
they are open to developing social services v/hich really meet the
needs of children of ethnic and racial m,inorities as well as
the needs of main-stream whites.

Case studios constitute another possible area in which
material could be introduced to help participants deal with
their level of racism.

138

-11-

Similarly sexism is a rclcvcint topic for inclusion in the
consideration of the topic of leadership and personnel raanagc-
ment within sociol service orqcmi^ations .

SurJiidrv an:'^ Conclusjo: i r

Thirty-eight funded projects for teciching :.^anagcment in
the social services througliout the country have been
reviev:cd. The planning process, content i;.ost often judged
relevant and omissions vexe reviev7ed. Also tl;C ways
that continuing education prograns are being offered

to administrators in child \::a£i\-cc. ^Phcrc soni.,s to be a genuine
attempt to got in-put from the potential trainees about thorr
• training need-, and the appropriate ]>riorities; Their course
content includes the trc.ditional areas of education about
administration such as orcani?;ational theory, finances, Jcadorsh-'p
and motivation as well as newer techniques of planning and
control such as Kanagenenl by Objectives and Program Planning
Budget Systems. Additional new }:nov;ledge infused into these
training programs includes Management Inforr.ation Systems,
Decision Theory and Operations Research. The v/riter's general
im.pression is that these program.s are mainly focused on financial
m.anagerent and the monitoring and the evaluation of programs.
Rcscarcli other than tliat specifically related to program evaluation
was not included. There seemed a lack of inclination to deal
with substantive, relevant value issues in these training
projo.cts, such as v;orkinq for the elimination of racism v;ithin
child welfare social services*

er|c 13 &

hriimiymrfTiaaaa

On the whole the writer sensed a conunitmont on the part
of those who developed these projects to gain the knowledge,
information, and techniques to prove that social v/orkers can
manage programs so as to accon:plish social goals.

140

APPENDIX A

ADVISORY COriMITTEE to the
NATIONAL PROJECT on EDUCATION for
MANAGEMENT OF SOCIAL WELFARE
UNIVERSITY Of PENNSYLVANIA
PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA

1974-1975

ADVISORY C0MI4ITTEE

Mr. Chauncey Alexander
Mr. Howard Brabson
Ms. Dorothy Daly

Mr. Keith Daugherty
Mr. William McCurdy

Mr. Howard Epstein
Ms. F. Pauline Godwin

Mr. Norman V. Lourie
Mr. Carl Scott
Ms. Clara Swan
Mr. Edward Weaver
Mr. Robert Wylie

ERIC

National Association
of Social Workers

National Alliance of
Black Social Workers

Programs for Training and
Management

Catholic University of
America

Family Service Association

Southern Regional Education
Board

Community Services
Administration, Social and
Rehabilitation Services,
Department of Health,
Education and VJelfare

Penna. Department of
Public Welfare

Council on Social Work
Education

Child Welfare League of
America, Incorporated

American Public Welf re
Association

Maine State Department of
Health and Welfare

141

APPENDIX B

FACULTY and STAFF MEMBERS of the
NATIONAL PROJECT on EDUCATION for
MANAGEMENT OF SOCIAL \ffiLFARE
UNIVERSITY of PENNSYLVANIA
PHILADELPHIA, PENNSYLVANIA

1974-1975
FACULTY

Dr. Richard Estes

Dr. Sue Henry

Dr. Herman Levin

Dr. Christopher Mader

Dr. George Parks

Professor Eleanor Ryder

Dr. Elisabeth Schaub

Dr. Max Silverstein

Dr. Francis Wolek

Dr. Ross Webber

Dr. William Zucker

The School of Social Work

The Wharton School

The School of Social Work

The Wharton School

STAFF

Mrs.

Sandra Cohen, Masters Student

The

School of Social

Work

Mr.

Harlan Gardiner, Masters Student

The

Wharton School

Mrs.

Marlene Patterson Doctoral Student

The

School of Social

Work

Mr.

Douglas Whyte, Doctoral Student

The

School of Social

Work

ERIC

142

APPENDIX C

PARTICIPANTS at the
JANUARY^ 1975 and JUNE, 1975 SESSIONS of the
SEMINARS on the
NATIONAL PROJECT on EDUCATION for
MANAGEI-IENT of SOCIAL WELFARE at the
UNIVERSITY of PENNSYLVANIA
in

PHILADELPHIA, PEIWSYLVANIA

PARTICIPANTS

Mr. Chauncey Alexander

Mr* Robert Baitty

Ms. Mary Bogner
Mr. Howard Brabson

Mrs. Frances Feldman

Dr. David S. Franklin
Dr. Ralph Garber
Dr. Gunther Geiss
Ms. F. Pauline Godwin

Dr. Stanley Good
Dr. Jerry Griffin
Dr. Howard Harlow

National Association of
Social Workers

Community Services Adminis-
tration, Social and Rehab-
ilitation Services, Depart-
ment of Health, Education
and Welfare

Boston University

National Alliance of Black
Social Workers

Regional Research Institute
in Social vrelfare. University
of Southern California

University of Southern Calif.

Rutgers University

Adelphi University

Community Services Adminis-
tration, Social and Rehab-
ilitation Services, Dept.
of Health, Education and
Welfare

University of Iowa

Univeristy of Alabama

Indiana University of
South Bend

ERLC

143

PARTICIPANTS

Dr* Michael J. Kelly
Dr* Edwin C. Leonard
Dr. Harold Lewis

Mr. William McCurdy

Mr. Joseph Murphy

Mr. Charles T. O'Reilly

Dr. George Plutchok

Dr. Ted Raley

Dr. Charles Sanders

Mr. Carl Scott

Dr. Barbara K. Shore
Ms. Clara Swan

Dr. Harry J. Waters
Mr. Edward Weaver
Mr* Robert Wylie

Dr. John Yankey

University of Texas at Austin

Indiana University

Hunter College of the City of
New York

Family Service Association
of America

Atlanta University

State University of New York
at Albany

University of Pittsburgh

University of Oklahoma

St. Lukes Hospital Center
Atlanta, Ga.

Council on Social Work
Education

Unive^rsity of Pittsburgh

Child Welfare League of
America, Incorporated

University pf Maine

American Public Welfare Assoc*

Maine State Department of
Health and Welfare

University of Maine

ERIC

144

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